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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 




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Edited by T. D. Curtis 



An Eight Page Monthly, 6 Columns 20 Inches Long 
• To the Page. 

9 HE * 3§ EST * AND * (2-HEAPEST * 2>APER * ^UBLISHED 
FOR THE 

@/^ Dairy or the Farm, ^\5> 




It Keeps up with the Times 

and Gives All the Latest 

Methods and Ideas. 



<3r\_5e^-^: 

Price Only 50 Cents a Year 
. D. CURTIS &SONS, - Syracuse, N. ' 

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BY 



T. D. CU 






RTIS. 



Complete success in dairying depends on right conditions. 






SYRACUSE. N. Y. 

PUBLISHED FROM THE OFFICE OF THE 

FARMER AND DAIRYMAN. 

1885. 



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Copyrighted in the year 1885 
BY T. D. CURTIS. 



PREFACE. 



It was intended by the Author to publish an exhaus- 
tive practical work on Dairying. But his time was so 
occupied by other matters that he was compelled to aban- 
don the idea. Much of the following pages was written 
while traveling, the intervals of waiting at hotels and rail- 
road stations being devoted to this work. But on reperus- 
ing the chapters as they appeared in the columns of the 
Farmer and Dairyman, and making slight additions, he 
has concluded to give them to the Dairy Public in their 
present form, believing that they may be of some assist- 
ance to the tyro, and perhaps afford a hint, here and there, 
to the dairyman of more experience who wishes to keep 
abreast of his fellows in the march of progress.- This 



IV HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

little book is not intended to supersede any other work 
>n the subject, but to play the part of an auxiliary and 
present in a condensed form the pith which the reader 
might not have time to get from a more elaborate volume. 
The favor with which his "Hints on Cheesmaking 1, — now 
out of date — was received, gives the author confidence 
that his later effort may serve to fill a place that now re- 
mains unoccupied. Providence seems to have selected 
him as one of the laborers in this field of education, and 
he conscientiously devotes a portion of his energies to 
the service with envy toward none, but entertaining the 
hope that his mite may not be unacceptable among so 
man}^ larger contributions. 



HINTS ON DAIRYING. 



HISTORICAL. 



BAIKYING runs back to a period in the development 
of the human race of which we have no record. 
Man early learned to not only slay animals and eat 
their flesh, but to appropriate to himself the food belong- 
ing to their young— a trait of selfishness which he has not 
yet overcome, and even manifests by preying in various 
ways upon his fellows. We have in the world large class- 
es who add nothing to its real wealth, but live and luxu- 
riate on the fat of the earth by drawing the results of 
labor from the toilers through cunningly devised schemes 
of finance, business and government. 



IN ASIA. 



Away back in the dimness of antiquity, of which even 
tradition gives no hint, comparative philology shows us 
that a civilized race, now known as the Aryan race, dwelt 



(> HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

on the steppes of Central Asia, and that the ox and the 
cow constituted their chief means of subsistence. They 
lived in simple peace and innocence, their language hav- 
ing no terms of war and strife. But there came a time 
when separation began and migration followed. They 
were scattered to the four corners of the Eastern Conti- 
nent, and their descendants now constitute the progressive 
nations of the earth. The parent nation appears to have 
utterly perished in giving birth to the nations of the fu- 
ture. No trace of it is left, save the remnants of its lan- 
guage inherited by its children; but they furnish indis- 
putable evidence of a common parentage. 

AMONG THE JEWS. 

Our earliest authentic records about the dairy are of 
the use of milk and its products among the Jews. We 
are told, in the 8th verse of the 18th chapter of Genesis, 
that when Abraham entertained the three strangers, "he 
took butter and milk, and the calf which he had dressed, 
and set it before them." Moses, in his song, as recorded 
in the 23d chapter of Deuteronomy, 14th verse, says of 
Jacob that the Lord, among other things, gave him to eat 
"butter of kine and milk of sheep." Deborah, who de- 
clares in her song that "the stars in their courses did 
fight against Sisera," who was entertained and slain 
by Jael, says of the murderess (Judges, 25th verse and 8th 
chapter) "he asked water and she gave him milk, she 
brought forth butter in a lordly dish." In the 17th 
chapter and 5th verse of 2d Samuel, the writer tells us 
that David and his people, after the battle in the wood of 
Ephraim, were given "honey and butter, and sheep and 



HISTORICAL. i 

cheese of kine," to eat. Zophar, in the 20th chapter of 
Job, 17th verse, declares of the wicked hypocrite, who 
"hath swallowed down riches," that his triumph is short, 
and "he shall not see the rivers, the floods, the brooks of 
honey and butter" — which, we infer, are designed for the 
righteous; and Job (29th chapter and 6th verse) bemoans 
the loss of his former prosperity, "when I washed my 
steps with butter." In the 55th Psalm, 24th verse, David 
says of his enemy that "the words of his mouth were 
smoother than butter." Solomon appears to have under- 
stood the whole business. In Proverbs, 30th chapter and 
33d verse, he exclaims: "Surely, the churning of milk 
bringeth forth butter." Isaiah, in the 7th chapter and 
15th verse, declares of the coming Immanuel, that "butter 
and honey shall he eat;" and again (22d verse) that "for 
the abundance of milk that they shall give he shall eat 
butter." 

IN SOUTHERN EUROPE. 

Chambers says : " In ancient times, the Hebrews seem 
to have made copious use of butter as food ; but the 
Greeks and the Romans used it only as an ointment in 
their baths, and it is probable that the Greeks obtained 
their knowledge of the subject from the Scythians, Thra- 
cians, and Phrygians, whilst the Romans obtained it of 
Germany." This would indicate that the Germans at 
that time were engaged in dairying. But, even now, in 
Southern Europe, butter is sparingly used, and in Italy, 
Spain, Portugal and Southern France, it is sold by apoth- 
ecaries as an ointment. Dairying is now extensively 
carried on in all the countries of Northern Europe. 



*% 



HINTS ON DAIRY INC 1 , 



IN AMERICA. 

When the early settlers of America crossed the At- 
lantic, the^y brought with them their favorite domestic 
animals, including the family cow. But dairying for -a 
long time, in this country, appears to have been confined 
mainly to producing supplies for the family of the dairy- 
man. It was not until quite a recent date that dairying 
sprang into commercial importance. But, to-day, dairy- 
ing cannot be considered second to any other industry as 
to either magnitude or importance; and it is a patent 
fact that, in those sections where dairying is most exten- 
sively and successfully carried on, the farming population 
is the most prosperous and happy. 

Within the last twenty years, since associated dairying 
has been introduced, great progress has been made in the 
dairy — but not greater than in many other occupations, 
nor out of proportion with the growth of population. 
The growth of the dairy will probably never exceed the 
grow T th of population so long as the present heavy tide of 
immigration continues to set toward our shores. 

FIGURES FROM THE CENSUS. 

Let us refer to the census of 1880, and note the devel- 
opment of the dairy during the previous 80 years: 

By the census of 1850, we had 6,385,094 cow t s, and pro- 
duced 314,345,306 pounds of butter, and 105,535,893 pounds 
of cheese — a total of 418,881,199 pounds of product. 

By the census of 1860, w T e had 8,585,735 cows, and 
produced 459,681,372 pounds of butter, and 103,663,927 
pounds of cheese — a total of 563,345,299 pounds of 
product. 



HISTORICAL. 9 

By the census of 1870, we had 8,035,332 cows and pro- 
puced 514,(592,683 pounds of butter, and 162,927,382 pounds 
of cheese — a total of 677,620,065 pounds of product — and 
this notwithstanding the war of the rebellion came in 
this decade. 

By the census of 1330, we had 12,443,120 cows, and 
produced 806,662,071 pounds of butter, and 243,157,850 
pounds of cheese — a total of 1,049,819,921 pounds of 
product. 

GROWTH IN THIRTY YEARS. 

This is an increase in annual product of 630,948,622 
pounds in thirty years, or 212,057,523 pounds more than 
double the amount, in 1880, that was manufactured in 
1850. History records no parallel to this anywhere on 
the face of the globe. r ■ 

Let us put some of these figures into tabular form. 
We had in 

Cows Inhabitants 

1880 .12,443,120 to 50,155,783 

1850 6,385,094 to 23,191,876 



Increase in 30 years 6,058,026 26,963,907 

We did not quite double the number of cows, but con- 
siderably more than doubled the population. The num- 
ber of inhabitants was, in 

1850 '•: .3.63 per cow 

1880 4.03 

The increase in 30 years is .40 inhabitant to each cow. 
*- • 

That is to say, the population, as compared with the 
number of cows, was .40 larger in 1880 than it was in 1,850. 



1 ' ) HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

PRODUCT PER COW AND PER CAPITA. 

And now let us compare the product per cow and per 
capita. It was in 

Lbs. per Lbs. per 
cow capita 

1850 418,881,199 lbs., or 65.77 or 18.06 

1880 1,049,829,921 lbs., or 84.37 or 20.93 

Increase in 30 years 18.60 2.87 

HOME CONSUMPTION VS. EXPORTS. 

But it should be borne in mind that in 1850 very near- 
ly all our dairy products were consumed at home ; where- 
as in 1880, we exported a large amount. As the exports 
do not all come in the year of production, we will take 
the average amount of exports for 1879 and 1880: 

Lbs. Butter. Lbs. Cheese. 

Exports, 1879 38,248,016 141,654,474 

1880 39,236,658 127,553,907 



k 



Divided by 2)77,484,674 269,208,381 

Yearly average 38,742,337 134,604,190 

Add butter and cheese together. . 38,742,337 

We have a yearly av. export of. .173,346,527 

pounds of product. If we take this from the total pro- 
duct of 1880 1,049,829,921 pounds 

173,346,527 pounds 

we have. , 876,483,394 pounds 

of product for home consumption, or more than five times 
as much as we export. This is a consumption of 17.47 



HISTORICAL. 1 I 

pounds per capita for our 50,155,783 inhabitants, or Ml of 
a pound less than in 1850, when it was 18.60 pounds per 
capita. Does not this indicate the folly of catering for a 
foreign market to the neglect of our own? 

FORMS OF MILK CONSUMPTION. 

It is estimated by good judges that 45 per cent, of our 
milk product is consumed in its natural state, 50 per 
cent, is used in butter making, and 5 per cent, is made 
into cheese. The fact of there being a foreign demand 
for so large a proportion of our cheese, has led everybody 
astray, and magnified the cheese factor} into the position 
of supreme importance. 

THE PRIVATE DAIRY VS. THE FACTORY. 

Let us again turn to the census of 1880, and see how 
the factory product compares in amount and importance 
with the product of the private dairy. It appears by the 
census of 1880 that the number of pounds of dairy pro- 
ducts made in factories was as follows: 

Cheese made in factories . . .215,885,361 lbs. 
Butter " " " .... 29,411,784 " 

Total factory product. . .245,307,145 lbs. 
Cheese made on farms 27,272,489 lbs. 



Butter " " " 777,250,28 



Total farm product 804.522,776 lbs. 

Deduct factory product 245,307,145 u 

Excess of private dairy. .559,215,631 lbs. 
or considerably more than double the total factory pre 
duct. 



fa EI&TOIIICAL. 

Now, let us make a comparison by values, calling the 
choose 10 cents and the butter &a cents a pound. We 
made in factories: 

Cheese, 215,885,361 lbs.. @ 10c. $2^588,53(j 
Butter, 29,411,784 lbs., @. 25c. 7,352,94(> 



Value of factory product $29,941,482 

■ i " 
There was made in the private dairies: 

Cheese, 27,272,489 lbs., @ IOC. $- 2,727,249 
Butter, 777,250,287 lbs., @ 25c. 194;812,571 



Value of private dairy products $197,039,820 
Deduct value of factory products 29,941,482 



In favor of private dairy. $167,098,838 

In short, the product of the private dairy is between 
three and" four times larger than that of the factory, and 
nearly seven times its value. Important as the factory 
is and is likely to become, let us not forget the private 
dairy nor overlook the home interest in striving for a 
little foreign patronage. 

Notwithstanding the fault with the census that is 
found by some, the census is the most reliable source of 
statistical information about the dairy that we have. 



CONDITIONS. 



{T is not ever} 7 novice that can take np the business of 
dairying and carry it on successfully ; yet, some of 
our most successful dairymen are comparative novi- 
ces in the business. Quick observation and sound judg- 
ment are important qualities in a dairyman. These 
qualities are not always acquired by long experience, but 
are oftener the generous gifts of nature. Hence, it fre- 
quently happens that men of quick discernment step into 
a new business and achieve success where others have 
met only years of failure. Improvements in all callings 
are apt to be made by sharp lookers-on, who are not bred 
in the habits of routinism, nor prejudiced against radical 
innovations. They see at a glance where the plodder 
fails, and fearlessly apply the remedy- — often a short-cut 
to ends that have hitherto been reached with much diffi- 
culty and hard labor. And here is where the real inven- 
tor finds his greatest field of usefulness. 

PASTURES. 

Sweet pastures, with a variety of nutritious grasses 
growing in them, are essentials to success in dairying — 
especially in butter making — in summer. Bitter and 
other mal-flavored weeds must be avoided, as thev flavor 



14 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

both the milk and the product manufactured from it. The 
cows must not be worried, nor over-worked in rambling 
over poor pastures to get sufficient food. 

WATER. 

Plenty of clean water must be conveniently at hand 
for the cows to drink. The water must be sweet and 
clean enough for the human stomach. Abundance of 
such water is more essential in the pasture — for the cows 
to drink while secreting milk that contains 87 per cent, 
of water — than it is in the dairy-house, where a small 
amount of water will answer, if ice is used, and hence can 
more easily be obtained pure. 

WINTER FOOD. 

In winter, the food must be in proper condition, pro- 
perly balanced between the nitrogenous and carbonaceous 
materials, and in full supply — all the cow can digest and 
assimilate. At least one ration a clay should include 
sweet ensilage, roots, or other succulent food, to aid in 
the separation of the butter from the cream by action of 
the churn, it having been shown that all dry feed not 
only reduces the flow of milk, but makes churning slow 
and difficult, leaving a large percentage of fat in the 
buttermilk. 

THE STABLE. 

While in stable, the cow must also have plenty of pure 
air and sw r eet water, and not be chilled in obtaining 
either. Without pure air, the cow becomes debilitated 
and diseased, and the milk impure and unwholesome. 



CONDITIONS. 15 

Impure water both taints and corrupts the product. A 
proper temperature — certainly above freezing — should 
be kept up. Remember, the cow standing still cannot 
resist cold as she could if she were free to move about. 
It is cheaper to build warm stables — always providing 
for perfect ventilation, the air coming in at the head and 
passing off in the rear of the cow — and even to resort to 
artificial heating, than to compel the cow to burn an extra 
amount of carbonaceous food in her system to keep up 
the temperature of her body. Not only is fuel cheaper 
than food, but the system of the cow cannot devote to 
milk secretion the energy which is expending in secret- 
ing and consuming fat to maintain a proper amount of 
vital heat. 

SHELTER . 

Proper shelter iu summer, from the scorching rays of 
the mid-day sun, and from beating storms and winds, is 
necessary. This should be easily accessible- Especially 
in early spring and late fall do the animals suffer severely 
from exposure to the cold winds and storms of all hours 
in the twenty-four. 

DAIRY HOUSE. 

Every dairyman should have a good dairy house dis- 
tinct from the dwelling apartments. It need not, neces- 
sarily, be a separate building, but it should not be subject 
to the inflowing of odors from the kitchen and sitting 
rooms. The dairy house should be so constructed that 
the temperature may at all times be kept under per- 
fect control. There should be no surrounding cesspools 



16 HINTS ON DA IKYING. 

or other mal-odorous sources of taint, and the ventilation 
should be free without perceptible drafts or currents of 
air. Xo matter what method of setting milk and churn- 
ing may be adopted, there is a decided advantage in hav- 
ing the daily house, or any other workshop, separate 
from the dwelling apartments, so that the work of the 
one shall in no way interfere with the work of the other. 
Almost all dairymen fail, to some extent, in not having 
the daiiy house entirely separate. It would cost but lit- 
tle extra; and until dairymen look upon the business as 
their life work and build and plan accordingly, we need 
not expect the best possible success in dairying. ' 

CLEANLINESS.. 

Cleanliness everywhere and at all times is an absolute 
necessity. There is not the least danger of being too 
clean. The writer has never yet seen a dairy without 
defects in this particular. Yet, most people mean to be 
clean, and suppose they are. Lack of information is 
often the cause of uncleanliness, and habit goes a great 
way in making people indifferent to untidy surroundings. 
It is safe to copy the neat points found in every dairy, 
as well as to avoid the offensive ones. As Gov. Seymour 
once said, ''cleanliness is a comparative term." It is 
well to keep making comparisons on this point, until no 
unfavorable comparisons with anybody's dairy can be- 
found; and these comparisons should extend to the 
surroundings of the cows, the manner of milking, the 
handling of the milk, the cleansing of milk utensils, and 
all the processes of manipulation from beginning to end. 
The dairy house should not only look clean, but be, as it 



CONDITIONS. 17 

were, fragrant with neatness and sweetness. And it is 
all-important that the clothing and person should be 
clean and neat to a fault. A sweet temper, even is no 
drawback. 

THE HERD. 

Of course, a thorough knowledge of the business must 
be had or be acquired. The proper selection or rearing 
of dairy stock is essential to success. The cow should 
not only be a good milker, but give milk suited to the 
line of dairying pursued. If cheese making is the object, 
there must be a large flow of milk rich in caseine. In 
butter ma-king, a larare flow of milk is not essential, but 
there must be a large percentage of fat in it. And the 
breeding must be such as to keep up the status of the 
herd. Some depend on purchasing cows, and exercise 
great care and judgment in so doing. In exceptional 
cases, a herd may be kept up in this way. But somebody 
must breed and rear good cows, or soon none can be had 
at any price. As a rule, it may be said to be the duty of 
every dairyman to breed from the best blood obtainable, 
and to rear the heifer calves from his best cows. Unless 
this condition is fulfilled, the dairy as a whole must run 
down. It is only by constant care and breeding from the 
best that the present status can be maintained, and pos- 
sibly a little progress made. It should be the ambition 
of every dairyman to constantly improve the value of his 
herd, and to make progress in every department of his 
dairy, while improving the quality of his product. 



DAIRY STOCK. 



[mTHERE is no more important subject connected with 
|@ the dairy than that of the selection and rearing of 
stock. The herd is the fountain head. If there is 
failure here there is failure everywhere. Many a dairy- 
man has remained poor all his days because he spent his 
time and energies on an unprofitable herd. This is the 
first thing to be looked after. The selection of a herd is 
a matter of both knowledge and judgment — knowledge 
of the characteristics of breeds and of the requisites of a 
good dairy cow, and judgment as to whether the individ- 
ual cow in question possesses these characteristics and 
requisites. We will give some of the generally acknow- 
ledged characteristics of the different breeds, first indi- 
cating, as far as we can in words, some of the points of a 
good dairy cow. 

POINTS OF A MILKER. 

The dairy cow should be deep and broad through the 
flank- deeper and broader than through the shoulders — 
but must have a comparatively large chest, giving capa- 
city of lungs and stomach, for she must have good diges- 
tive powers and inhale plenty of fresh air. Her hips 



DAIRY STOCK. 10 

should be broad, setting her thighs well apart, and her 
thighs should be rather thin. This gives space for a 
large udder, which is indispensable, for it is unreasonable 
to expect a large flow of milk from an udder of small 
capacity. The udder should be soft and fleshless when 
empty, and extend high up in the rear. It should also 
extend well forward, and from it should extend further 
forward large, protruding milk-reins. If they are dou- 
ble and are crooked and knotty, all the better. These 
veins carry off the blood after it has passed through the 
udder and performed its part in elaborating milk, and 
their size indicates the amount of blood employed, and 
by inference the amount of milk secreted. So the es- 
cutcheon, which should extend out on the thighs and run 
with even edges and unbroken surface up to or near the 
vulva, is supposed to be some indication of the extent of 
the arterial system that contributes blood for the elabo- 
ration of milk. The neck should be slender, taper and 
thin, the horns small and slender, the face dishing or 
flat, the eyes wide apart and mild and intelligent in ex- 
pression, the muzzle broad when viewed from the front 
but thin when viewed from the side, and the lips thick 
and strong. A long, slender tail is indicative of good 
breeding. A yellow skin, or one which secretes an oily 
yellow scurf— especialh^ seen in the ears, along the back 
and at the end of the tail — is considered a sign of milk 
rich in fat. The skin should be soft and pliable, the hair 
fine, and the coat glossy. We prefer rather light to very 
dark colors. Our observation is that a black cow never 
givps as rich milk as one in which the white predomi- 



30 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

nates. In other colors we have not noted such a differ- 
ence. Viewed from the front, the general shape of the 
cow should be a little wedffing — thinner in front and 
thicker in the rear. Viewed from the side, the cow 
should taper from rear to front, with the upper and low- 
er lines generally straight, with little or no slope from 
the rump to the tail. 

DUTCH-FRIESIAN. 

For general or all purposes, the Dutch-Friesian cow 
is not excelled. She may be equaled, but where is her 
superior? We use the name Dutch-Friesian because it 
expresses precisely what we mean — the black and white 
cattle of Friesian origin which have been bred pure in 
Friesland or North Holland, and not the cattle called 
" Holstein " in this country, which have been picked up 
promiscuously in the different provinces of Germany, 
because of their peculiar markings, but without reference 
to their breeding. Some of these may be pure bred, but 
they are liable to disappoint the honest purchaser, who 
buys them for and pays the price of pure bloods. The 
Dutch-Friesian cow is large, readily takes on flesh when 
not in milk, and therefore makes splendid beef. She is 
Hardy, docile and easily cared for. No other breed 
equals her in yield of milk. Her milk is of average 
richness, and she gives so much of it that it makes her 
valuable as a butter cow. Microscopists say the fat glob- 
ules in her milk are very small. This makes it some- 
what difficult to separate the fats from the milk for the 
purposes of butter making. Though the fat globules are 
quite uniform in size, it requires a long time to raise the 




:M00IE-.2.6.D.F.H.B.^ 

Dutch-Friesian Bull, MOOIE, 28 D. F. H. B. 

Property of the Unadilla Valley Stock Breeders' As- 

sociation, Wliitestov.n, N. Y. 




JacobaHartog, 2.D.F.H.B. 
Dutch-Friesian Cow, JACOBA HARTOG, 2 D. F. H. B. 

Property of the Unadilla Valley Stock Breeders' Asso- 
ciation, Whitestown, N. Y- 



HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

the quality of the meat. But lack of beef qualities we do 
not consider a very serious objection in a dairy cow. We 
get our profit from her in the dairy. We cannot reason- 
ably expect all good qualities in one animal or one breed. 
Nature is nowhere thus partial in her gifts. We find 
some good quality predominating in everyone of the sev-- 
eral breeds, and we must select accordingly to suit our 
line of dairying and our circumstances. The Jersey is a 
fawn-like, beautiful animal, with a mild eye and intelli- 
gent face, hut usually has a quite angular frame, as a 
consequence of her excessive dairy qualities. She is ra- 
ther tender, and cannot bear the pxposure and harsh 
treatment that some of the breeds can. Put no animal 
ought to receive such treatment. Kindness and comfort- 
able quarters are due to all domestic animals, and such 
care, with proper feed, is the most profitable to the 
owner. The Jersey will not stand harsh usage; but 
for the man of refined taste and good judgment, who 
wants a nice thing and to turn out fancy goods, she is 
most decidedly the cow, and will not disappoint l|im. 
Solid colors and black muzzles are the fashion in Jerseys, 
but we are not aware that there is any practical merit in 
these. They have been bred dowm in size, to suit the 
taste of the English Lord, wdio wants them as pets on his 
lawns. This is rather against than in favor of the Jersey 
as a dairy cow, as it must of necessity reduce her capa- 
city for converting food into milk and cream. 

THE GUERNSEY 

There are but few of these animals as yet in this 
country, but the few that have been imported and bred 



DAIRY STOCK. 23 

here have proved very satisfactory and promising. They 
are pale red or buff red and white. The colors are about 
in equal proportions, though the red may predominate. 
They are considerably larger than the Jersey and possess 
all the good qualities of the latter. Indeed, there is 
pretty good evidence that thes^ breeds have the same 
origin, and that the Jersey is the Guernsey bred down in 
size and bred also for solid colors. The Guernsey is just 
as beautiful in face and form as the Jersey, and we think 
rather hardier and possesses more capacity. For all 
practical purposes, we should be inclined to give prefer- 
ence to the Guernsey, which has no rival in her line, 
except the Jersey. This breed can lay claim to some 
beef qualities, because of its size. It is destined to be- 
come a popular favorite in the butter dairy and as a 
family cow. 

THE AYRSHIRE. 

This breed is a great favorite with many. It is small 
— scarcely larger than the Guernsey— and is remarkably 
nimble and hardy, thriving on scant feed and in rough 
pastures where some of the other breeds would starve. 
The Ayrshires are reel or red and white and give a large 
flow of milk, fairly rich in caseine and in butter. The 
breed has its phenomenal cows, both as milkers and as 
butter makers. The cream globules of the milk are 
quite irregular in size, and hence do not readily separate 
from the milk by ordinary methods of cream raising. 
But this fact makes the milk all tha better for family 
use, for marketing and for the cheese factory, or for both 



^ HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

butter and cheese from the same milk. The Ayrshire 
like the Dutch-Friesian, may be called a good general 
purpose cow. The greatest, objections to this breed have 
been its nervousness and its small teats; but both of 
these may be overcome by gentle treatment and careful 
breeding-indeed. have been overcome in many cases. 
For rough, hilly pastures, there is no better cow than the 
Ayrshire. But although she can stand some hard fare 
she responds quickly to gentle and generous usage! 
Well-selected and well-bred Ayrshires make a splendid 
dairy herd. 

THE SHORTHORN. 

This has long been a popular breed, and there may 
be said to be a strong popular prejudice in its favor. Its 
undisputed, and perhaps unequalecl, beef qualities have 
been its strongest recommend. It was, however, origi- 
nally a milch breed, and some families of the breed are 
still hard to excel for the dairy. But it is quite difficult 
to select and maintain a milking strain, so long have the 
Shorthorns been bred for -beef and beauty," and so 
effectually have the milking qualities been bred out of 
them. In some of the beef families, the cows do not give 
milk enough to support their calves. Yet, many dairy- 
men cling to this breed and keep unprofitable dairies be- 
cause they can get a good price for the old carcass as 
beef when the cow is no longer tolerable in the dairy 
herd. This is short-sightedness, and holding beef for 
market too long and at too great a cost. The profit 
should be in the dairy products, where a dairy herd is 



gmm 

ST 




DAIRY STOCK. 25 

kept, anil beet should be altogether a subordinate con- 
sideration. The Shorthorn is usually red or roan, and 
occasionally red and white, though we always suspect 
other blood — Ayrshire, for instance — in the spotted ani- 
mals. As a rule, we do not consider the Shorthorns as 
really profitable dairy cows, though there are many ex- 
ceptions where a milking strain is cultivated. But there 
is no disputing their value for beef. 

THE DEVON. 

This is one of the choicest and most reliable of the 
dairy breeds. They are uniformly red, of fair size, have 
a sprightly appearance, and reproduce their like more 
certainly than any other breed that we know. As has 
been said, they are so prepotent, uniform, and distinct 
from the other breeds that they may be called a race of 
cattle. Their history runs back hundreds of years, until 
it is lost in tradition and uncertainty. But origin and 
history are of little consequence, since it is the living 
fact — the cattle themselves — that we have to deal with. 
The cows give a good sized mess of milk — large milkers 
have appeared among them as among other breeds — and 
their milk is very rich. It is not as rich as the Jersey's 
and the Guernsey's milk, but there is more of it, and 
it approximates the richness of the milk of these 
breeds more closely than that of any other. Hence, they 
are excellent butter cows, and justly favorites among 
those who are the most familiar with them and know 
how to breed them. Healthy, hardy, and easy to keep, 
they are adapted to almost any circumstances, and are 



26 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

excellent as butter or family cows, while the males 
owing to their activity and endurance, make splendid 
oxen — both useful and fine looking. They make fine 
beef and a fair amount of it. They would he useful ani- 
mals for crossing on the common stock and grades of the 
Northwest, where the climate is rigorous and both but- 
ter and beef are objects of importance. As workers, 
they would be very useful there. They will stand as 
much hardship as any breed we have, and as much as any 
breed ought to, but will do better under favorable than 
under unfavorable circumstances. Like all other breeds, 
they respond readily to kind and generous treatment, it 
being a universal law T that want and abuse are sources of 
loss in the keeping of stock, the best results always fol- 
lowing the best treatment. ' The} r will do w T ell on level, 
hilly or rough pastures, because of their nimbleness and 
endurance: while the certainty of their breedidg makes 
it perhaps less difficult to perpetuate their good qualities 
than is the case with any of the other breeds. In short, 
they are the most prepotent and uniform of all, give a 
good-sized mess of very rich milk, are easy to keep, hardy 
and active, and fill a sphere which.it would be difficult to 
fill without them. We do not know how. their milk ap- 
pears under the microscope, but we judge from the char- 
acteristics of these animals that the butter globules are 
above the average size and verv uniform. Hence the 
cream rises readily, is easily churned, and makes a rich- 
colored, line-flavored butter. It is a little remarkable 
that the breeders of these cattle have not succeeded in 
ng up a 'boom;' 1 but the probability is that no 



DAIRY STOCK. 4 i 

strenuous aud persistent effort lias been made in this 
direction. Their superior merits are unquestioned and 
unquestionable. 

THE AMERICAN HOLDERKESS. 

This is a new breed, and its reputation is mainly of a 
local character. But it is not without its representatives 
in most of the Northern and Northwestern States, and its 
fame has traveled quite extensively, considering the qui- 
et and unpretentious manner in which it was originated 
and has been bred. In some particulars it is the most 
uniform of the breeds, even more uniform than the 
Devon. Especially is this true of the quality of the milk, 
which is as uniform throughout the herd as if it were 
drawn from a single cow, the quality varying, where the 
keep is the same, only with the age of the cow, and the 
lapse of time since calving. The yield of milk, though 
not excessive, is large and very rich — almost equal to 
that of the Jersey and Guernsey, and quite equal to that 
of the Devon. It churns easily, and the butter com- 
pletely separates from the buttermilk, rendering a second 
churning of no avail. Three hundred pounds per cow a 
year of high-colored and fine-flavored butter is a fair 
average for a herd. Few, even of selected herds, of other 
animals equal this. We are not aware of phenomenal 
milkers among the Holderness cattle, unless all can be 
called such, their chief characteristic being uniformity. 
They breed, it may be said, perfectl} r true to type, so that 
all are excellent. The reason for this uniformity is plain, 
and is found in the origin of the breed in the closest pos- 



28 HINTS OX DAIRYING. 

sible inbreeding for thirty years. They originated from 
a cow with calf which was bought 'by Mr. Truman A. 
Cole, of Solsville, K Y., of a drover who had just pur- 
chased it at auction in Knoxboro, N. Y., where a herd of 
pure-bloods, because of the death of the owner, had been 
sold under the auctioneer's hammer. The cow dropped 
a bull calf, which was bred to its mother, then to both 
mother and sister; and this system of close inbreeding, 
even sire to daughter, as well as brother to sister, has 
been continued down to the present time, or for thirty 
years, as before stated. This has fixed and intensified 
the qualities, and at the same time secured the greatest 
possible uniformity and really established a breed, sep- 
arate and distinct from all others. This is the way in 
which all the valuable breeds have been established, and 
this is the first persistent and successful effort at estab- 
lishing a purely American breed that has ever been 
made. While carefully watching results and selecting 
for breeding purposes, Mr. Cole has steadily refused to 
be turned from his course, or to change his purpose of 
establishing a uniform butter breed, and of testing the 
fallacy of the popular notion about the injurious effects 
of inbreeding. His thirty years of the closest inbreeding 
have shown no such disastrous effects, but, on the con- 
trary, have produced only good ones. There is no failure 
in form or constitution. The only marked external 
change, save in securing the greatest uniformity, has 
been in the gradual change of color. The original ani- 
mals were pale red and white, the white being along the 
back from the shoulders to the tail, down the hind-quar- 




American Holdcrness Bull, LEWIS F. ALLEN, 
at 16 months. 

Property of T. A. Cole, Sol,ville, N. Y. 




American Holderness Cow, ADELAIDE 17th, 

Property of T. A. Cole, Solsville, N. Y. 



DAIRY STOCK. 29 

ters, and along the belly to the shoulders. This distribu- 
tion of the light and dark colors has remained essentially 
the same, but the light red gradually turned to dark reel, 
then to brindle and finally to black. The later bred ani- 
mals are all black and white. But the calves, when first 
dropped, are still red and white, the red changing to 
black when the first coat of hair is shed. This is proba- 
bly one of the most remarkable cases of inbreeding on 
record, as the breed is also one of the most remarkable. 
All who have tried this stock are remarkably well pleased 
with it, and calves readily sell for $100 a head with a 
demand gi eater than the supply — and this without any 
newspaper advertising. The breed is endorsed b}^ Mr. 
Lewis F. Allen, former editor of the Shorthorn Herd- 
Book, and author of a work on cattle that stands second 
to none as authority. This endorsement has appeared in 
print over Mr. Allen's signature, as have the favorable 
opinions of many other good judges. In the latest edi- 
tion of his book on the Cattle of America, he says : 

" I never saw a more uniform herd of cows, in their 
general appearance and excellence, which latter quality 
they daily prove in the milk they produce. * * Com- 
pared with ordinary dairy herds, the uniformity in yield 
testifies to their purity of breeding and management." 

Col. Weld, who saw these cattle on exhibition at the 
New York State Fair, held at Utica in 1879, said of them, 
in the November number of the American Agriculturist ; 

u The cattle of this ' Cole-Holderness breed' are of 
good size and fair form as beef animals. * * * They 
are deep-bodied, with large udders and teats, with excel- 
lent escutcheons, great swollen and tortuous milk-veins 



30 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

and skins as yellow as Guernsey's. The interior of their 

"ears was almost like orange-peel. The butter made from 
their milk * * * showed admirable color and keeping 
qualities. * * * Could we test the various breeds of 
cattle, with the view of determining with accuracy which 
is the most profitable dairy cow for all purposes — butter, 
cheese, veal, and ultimately beef— giving to each its fair 
weight in the scale of excellence, I would not be sur- 
prised if Mr. Cole's breed would win the distinction of 
being the most useful of all." 

INBREEDING. 

A word here about inbreeding will not be out of 
place. It ma} r be disastrous, or it may be beneficial. So 
also inay be crossing or grading. The evil as well as the 
good qualities are developed and intensified. Like be- 
gets like. Couple animals having the same bad points, 
and these points will be increased and strengthened. 
Couple those w T ith good points, and corresponding results 
tollow T — that is, the good are increased and strengthened. 
But if one animal has one point to excess, so as to become 
a deformity, and the other is deformed by lack of this 
same point, it is both safe and advantageous to breed them 
together, as the result is likely to be a medium betw T een 
the tw T o. So, whatever the manner of breeding — inbreed- 
ing, crossing or grading — the good or evil results depend 
altogether on the characteristics of the animals coupled. 
Inbreeding intensifies and fixes the qualities, be they 
good or bad. 

SWISS. 

There have been a few importations of Swiss cattle, 
which are short-legged and strong-boned, and hence w r ell 



DAIRY STOCK. 31 

adapted to hilly regions. Some of these have made 
splendid butter records— from 500 to over TOO pounds of 
butter in a year. We should have great hopes of them 
for the mountainous sections of our country; but as yet 
importation and breeding of this stock is not extensive 
enough to permit of their availability to any considerable 
extent for dairy purposes. 

POLLED. 

The polled or hornless cattle are great favorites with 
some of the Western people, and an effort is made to get 
up a boom on them. But they not only lack in numbers, 
but in the essential quality of a large flow of milk, or of 
a very rich one. The best information we can get does 
not indicate usefulness for the daily. Xeither do they 
excel several of the other breeds for beef. Their chief 
recommend appears to be their destitution of horns, 
which in our eye is far from a mark of beauty. It gives 
them a sort of bald, unfinished look that is anything but 
pleasing. We prefer, for looks, short, well-turned horns. 
But of course, without horns there is no hooking, but 
pushing is by no means aovided. Besides, in some cases 
we have known a lack of horns to make it difficult to 
fasten the animals in stanchions or with ropes. This 
ma}' not be true of the cows ; but we were cognizant of 
an instance on the Xew York State Fair grounds where 
a polled bull was constantly getting loose. His neck was 
so thick that he could slip his head through anyplace 
nut tight enough to choke him. As to disposition, we 
presume the lack of horns would not make the bulls any 



32 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

more amiable. However, we have nothing to say against 
this kind of stock, and would advise all who like them to 
keep them. If horns are objectionable, it is easy to pre- 
vent them from growing on any stock by removing the 
first appearance of them on the calf. This can be clone 
without much pain to the calf and without much trouble 
to one who knows how to do it. It, as w r e understand, 
requires no great skill, and ean hardly be said to come 
under the head of cruelty to animals. It is nothing like 
as painful as castration. 

HEREFOllDS. 

The Herefords are having quite a boom in the West, 
but it is not as dairy stock, but as superior for beef. We 
have seen no strong claims put in for them for dairy 
purposes. The few we have seen did not seem to indicate 
any great dairy qualities, nor have any of the numerous 
portraits we have seen published borne the marks of 
dairy stock. But the claim of beef qualities we believe 
is well founded. Their great rivals in this line are the 
Shorthorns. 

COMMON STOCK. 

We have not mentioned the so-called " Native " stock 
as a dairy breed, because it is not a breed, but a mixture 
of breeds — crazy-quilt stock. We would not be under- 
stood as considering it of no value for dairy purposes, for 
wdien carefully selected, a dairy herd of commonn stock 
may be very valuable. Great milkers and great butter 
makers are not uncommon among them ; but there is such 
a mixture of blood in their veins that there is no guar- 



DAIRY STOCK. 33 

antee of their producing their like. They originally 
sprang from the best animals that the early emigrants 
could select to bring over with them from Europe. But 
they were subsequently cross-bred so promiscuously that 
no trace of the original blood can be discovered with any 
certainty. They were also subjected to great exposure 
and hardship, with scanty food, which had a greatly de- 
teriorating tendency. But, perhaps worst of all, there 
was no careful selection of males for breeding purposes, 
nor any attempt at judicious coupling for improvement, 
or for even the maintenance of the existing status. In 
short, the entire treatment and all the surroundings had 
a deteriorating influence and a tendency to the produc- 
tion of scrubs. If we were to take all the existing pure- 
blood stock and breed it together promiscuous!}", while 
at the same time subjecting it to harsh treatment and 
neglect, it would not require a very long period to reduce 
it to the same mongrel and scrub condition in which Ave 
now find the common stock of the country. Yet some of 
our common stock make excellent crosses, when pure- 
blood males are used. But no improvement or valuable 
results could come from using common stock bulls on. 
pure-blood or other cows. The male has the controlling 
influence, and to the constant use of pure-blood males 
must we look for the improvement of the common stock 
of the country and for the maintenance of the existing 
status of the pure-bloods ; and not only must we use pure- 
blood males, but keep up a constant and careful selection 
of the best. Neither should we trust to cross-bred or 
grade bulls for breeding purposes; for the progeny will 



HINTS on DAIRYING. 

inherit the traits of ancestors on one side or the other, 
and hence will lack in uniformity, both in appearance 
and in quality. When we use a grade bull, the result is 
just the opposite of what it is when we use a pure blood. 
With the latter, we get half-bloods, then quarter, then 
eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and so on, toward pure 
blood; but with a half-blood grade bull, the first off- 
spring from common stock has only one-fourth pure 
blood, the next cross has only one-eighth, the third one- 
sixteenth pure blood, and so on — reducing the purity in 
the same ratio as the use of pure blood improves it — if 
we continue to breed from the grade male offspring. If 
we always use a half-blood male, there may be a slight 
improvement in the blood. But the improvement is too 
slow T and the benefit too uncertain to make the use of a 
grade bull advisable when a pure blood can be had. 



BREEDING DAIRY STOCK. 



AVING briefly glanced at the characteristics of the 
different breeds, it will not be out of place to say a 
few words about breeding and rearing dairy stock. 
There are three things to be considered: 

1. Selection. 

2. Coupling. 

3. Care. 

SELECTION. 

By selection, we mean not only the selection of the 
breed adapted to the line of dairying pursued, but the 
selection of the individual animals to breed and rear ani- 
mals from, and especially the bull to be.used on the herd. 
This male should have a good pedigree — that is, be the 
lineal descendant of animals known to possess the qual- 
ities desired in the future herd. This is all-important ;. 
for however well-formed and comely he may be, he will 
transmit the qualities of his ancestors as surely as like 
begets like. This fact can never be safely ignored. Milk 
and butter qualities, in a dairy herd, must take prece- 
dence over beauty of form, however desirable the latter 
may be. The cows to rear stock from should be selected. 
as far as possible, on the same principle. Pedigree is 



36 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

not of as much consequence in a cow, so far as practical 
Its are concerned, though it helps insure certainty in 
the quality of the offspring when that of the cow, as well 
as of the bull, is right. But we may safely venture on 
raising the calves of a good milker, as the probabilities 
are that the offspring will inherit the qualities of the 
sire, while it may also inherit the qualities of the dam, 
though she be of the most mongrel or mixed blood. If 
there is failure, however, it need not go beyond that one 
animal — unless an attempt is made to use a grade bull 
on a nondescript dam, in which case prepotency is weak- 
ened and mongrel ism may show in the offspring. But 
grade bulls should never be used when it is possible to 
have the use of the right kind of pure blood, which is 
always stronger than mixed blood, and hence a pure 
blood sire is pretty sure to transmit the qualities of his 
herd and family, in a great degree, even when coupled 
with a cow of uncertain blood. In breeding, the one bull 
makes half the herd, and when used on common stock, 
the offspring will alw ays be half-bloods the first gener- 
ation. The second generation they become three-quarter 
bloods; the third seven eighths; the fourth fifteen-six- 
teenth, and so on, constantly approaching, but never 
reaching, purity. For all dairy purposes, however, they 
become practically as good as pure-bloods. But if the 
breeding is the other way — that is, if a scrub bull is used 
on pure-blood cows — the degeneration to the scrub status 
is in precisely the same ratio that we have just given for 
improvement when pure-blood males are constantly used. 
By using grade bulls, there is also a constant deteriora- 



BKEEDIXG DAIRY STOCK. o7 

tion of blood, but uot as rapid as when scrub bulls are 
used. The only safety is in using pure blood males. 
With these well selected and all other conditions main- 
tained, the status is certain to be preserved, if improve- 
ments, in consequence of better care and selection, are 
not secured. 

COUPLING. 

Proper coupling, or rather the coupling of proper 
animals, has received little attention, and is now confined' 
generally if not exclusively to professional breeders. 
But it is a subject to which the dairymen can as well as 
not pay attention with good results. By coupling proper 
animals, we mean having regard to individual points 
and qualities, never coupling those having the same de- 
fects, either in form or quality. For, instance, to illus- 
trate, a cow high on the rump may be safely bred to a 
bull low on the rump, or vice versa, the result, in all pro- 
bability, being an offspring with a level rump. This is 
breeding together opposite extremes, depending on the 
one to correct the other. But if we breed two sloped 
rumps together, or two humped rumps, the result would 
be to exaggerate and intensify or strengthen this deform- 
ity in the offspring. So of quality or disposition. A 
nervous cow bred to a nervous or irritable bull, would be 
pretty sure to drop a calf that would be more nervous 
than either sire or dam. But if one of the parents is dull 
and sluggish and the other irritable and sensitive, the 
offspring might be an improvement on both. Again, a 
cow lacking in the quality of richness of milk, though 
giving a large flow, should not be coupled with a bull 



BINTS ON DAlRTi [KG. 

ended from a family leaving the same peculiarity of 
largo Mow lacking in richness. But if there is richness 
on one side and abundance on the other, the coupling of 
the two might reasonably be expected to result in im- 
provement in the offspring, which might inherit both the 
large flow and the rich quality. Bad points and qualities 
are inheiited as well as good ones. Hence, the constant 
aim and care must be to avoid developing what is objec- 
tionable as well as to develop what is desired. It must 
be constantly borne in mind that like begets like. All 
the trouble attending inbreeding, crossing or grading 
comes from not properly regarding this fact. Where 
inbreeding is followed, the only disadvantage arises from 
the fact that all the animals are likely to have the same 
defects of form, quality and constitution. But where 
these are all right, the advantage is that inbreeding fixes 
the features and qualities and secures the establishment 
of them in a type or breed. But crossing or grading 
animals having the same failing wall prove just as disas- 
trous as would inbreeding. But crossing may be done in 
a way to develop good qualities, and these may afterward 
be fixed by careful selection and inbreeding of offspring. 
This subject of breeding is one of great importance, 
and yet little understood. Many ihings pertaining to it 
are yet to be settled, though great progress has been 
made during the last few years, and public attention is 
being drawn to it as it never was before. It will be 
found that man can become master of the situation, and 
may, by observing certain fundamental conditions and 
varying only the details, breed domestic animals of 



BREEDING DAIRY STOCK. 39 

almost any form, disposition, and quality, that he may 
desire. 

CARE AXD KEEP. 

Better care and keep, however, are the key notes to 
improvement. Higher conditions and better surround- 
ings lead to improvements which may be developed into 
fixed traits by proper selection and coupling, provided 
the improved environment is maintained. The status can 
be maintained only by maintaining the conditions. This 
is what we mean by care. Under this head, we include 
all that pertains to the health and comfort of the animal. 
Judicious care is of prime importance not only inbreeding 
but in securing the best results in dairy products. Proper 
food and drink and enough of it, with shelter, kind treat- 
ment, regularity and the most thorough system, must be 
provided, or corresponding failure, for any and all abuse, 
neglect or mistake, is sure to follow. 



FEEDING STOCK 



TTTTHE question of feeding stock is yearly rising into 
(I© greater prominence and importance. Formerly, it 
was thought that anybody who could throw out 
coarse fodder and hay to cattle knew enough for all prac- 
tical purposes about feeding, and that any sort of a shel- 
ter, or no shelter, if the animal survived, was sufficient. 
Better ideas are beginning to prevail. Few men now 
think they know all that can be learned about feeding 
stock, and those who know the most are the most anxious 
to learn. A thorough knowledge of feeding requires a 
knowledge of physiology and biology, with the chemical 
composition and nutritive qualities of the different kinds 
of food. Added to this must be the practical knowledge 
gained by observation of the effects of the different foods 
on different ani mals under various conditions. And when 
all is known that can be, there will still be room left for 
the exercise of the best judgment of the feeder as to the 
litions and requirements of the animal fed, and as to 
the quality of the foods available and the quantity and 
proportions of each. 

CARBONACEOUS ANI) NITROGENOUS FOODS. 

It is pretty well known what the constituents of the 
animal organism are, and what elements of nutrition are 



FEEDING STOCK. 41 

required in the food for the sustenance of the animal. 
Of these primal elements— some twelve or fifteen in 
number — it is found that, practically, when foods com- 
bined contain two of them in proper proportion, the iest 
are generally present in sufficient quantity. These two 
are Carbon and Nitrogen, and the foods containing them 
in relatively large proportion are respectively called car- 
bonaceous and nitrogenous. All foods contain these ele- 
ments in greater or less proportion. The proper propor- 
tion for feeding is found to be about one of nitrogen to 
five or six of carbon. If the temperature of the weather 
is low, the proportion of carbon may be raised to eight, 
and even ten, where little exercise is had — as, for in- 
stance, milch cows standing in a cold stable. But, in hot 
weather, when cows are giving milk, the carbon may be 
reduced to four and even three — that is, so that there 
shall be one part of nitrogen to three or four parts of car- 
bon. The carbon is heat and fat producing, and some 
class it as motor producing, but we think this is a mis- 
take, save so far as heat is essential to motion. We think 
nitrogen is motor producing as well as muscle producing 
— or, in other words, that the element which produces the 
organs of motion also fills them with energy, for the ex- 
ercise of which heat is essential. We cannot have mo- 
tion, or even life, much below the normal temperature of 
about 98 degrees Fahrenheit. At all events, it is found 
necessary to feed nitrogenous food to all animals that are 
working hard, to supply the waste of muscle — and we 
think also to replace the expended energy. Dr. J. Mil- 
ne r Fotherffill, in his work on the vv Maintenance of 



4'J HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

Health," published by G. P. Putnam's Sons, says : k> The 
effect of the nitrogen upon the brain is to evolve nerve 
and this rules and regulates the actual force 
which takes its origin in the respiratory foods consumed. 
These respiratory foods furnish the force itself, but the 
nitrogenized foods furnish the manifesters of force." It 
appears to us that the nerve force, which he says is 
evolved, is all there is of it, save the requisite conditions 
afforded by heat. Dr. Houghton says : kk The hunted deer 
will outrun the leopard in a fair open chase, because the 
force supplied to its muscles b} r vegetable food is capa- 
ble of being given out continuously for a long period of 
time; but in a sudden rush at a near distance, the leopard 
will infallibly overtake the deer, because its flesh food 
stores up in the blood a reserve of force capable of being 
given out instantaneously in the form of exceedingly 
swift muscualr action." Dr. Fothergill goes on to say: 
kk Nitrogen is the essential factor in all explosive com- 
pounds, from gunpowder to nerve force. It endows the 
consumer of it with energv and enables him to discharge 
his force quickly and rapidly/' Again, he says of the 
race-horse: u His food affects his speed and endurance, 
and without his nitrogenized food he would cut a poor 
figure at a race, because without it he could not discharge 
his force fast enough." 

WHAT IS CARBON V 

It is pure in the diamond, nearly pure in coal, and is 
the principal constituent of all woody fiber— also of oils, 
fat, starch, <ugar, etc. Nearly all the visible organic 



FEEDING STOCK. 48 

World is composed of. carbon. It appears to be very 
plentiful, but of our atmosphere it composes only about 
four-ten-thousandths, while oxygen, with which it unites 
to form carbonic acid gas for vegetation to feed on, com- 
poses one-filth and nitrogen four-fifths. Really, we have 
little trouble in securing carbonaceous foods. The only 
difficulty is to get them in a digestible form. Only what 
is soluble can be digested and assimilated by the animal 
organism. Hence, great care must be taken to get food 
in a proper condition for animal nutrition. 

WHAT IS NITROGEN? 

It is almost pure in the albumens, both vegetable and 
animal. It is nearly pure in the white of egg. Hence, 
nitrogenous foods are quite commonly called albumin- 
oids. It exists abundantly in all the proteins — as cheese 
or caseine, fibrin or lean meat, albumen, etc. Nitrogen, 
in its free state, appears to be an innocuous gas, diluting 
the oxygen and preventing it from rapidly oxydizing or 
burning up everything. As before said, it constitutes 
four-fifths of our atmosphere, but does not appear to be 
directly appropriated by either vegetables or animals. 
As food for either, it must be in combination with other 
elements — especially carbon— and yet it is very difficult 
to make it unite with other elements, and hard to main- 
tain the union when it is once formed. Its disposition is 
to break these unions and seek an idle state of freedom. 
Hence it is that, when held in durance, its constant ten- 
dency to free itself makes it the motor force in all animal 
organisms, and the terrible energy in all explosives. It 



1 J HINTS OX DAIRYING. 

is secured in the form of Ammonia in rain, by a process 
called nitrification it unites with the soil, and it exists in 
all decayed animal and vegetable matter in a form suit- 
able tor plant food. Men and animals get it by eating 
vegetables or by eating one another. It is a very abun- 
dant and important element, yet very difficult to obtain 
in an available form for plant and animal food. Fortu- 
nately, but comparatively little of it is needed. 

COMPOUNDING RATIONS. 

By referring to the feed tables furnished by the ana- 
lysts of this country and Europe, the farmer can learn 
the constituents of foods. Then, knowing the ration re- 
quired, he can take different foods and compound in the 
right proportions aimed at in feeding, whether for work, 
for growth, for fat, for bare maintenance, or for milk. 
We give the German standards for feeding animals: 



FEEDING STOCK. 



45 



BO 

03 — 33 

•I ~ ~ 

? 5? 



— 3 



l< 



II 

Hi-! 






;— x :* — x x x is 



■ lO o oo o o o 

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46 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

SVMI'LK RATIONS. 

Dr. Wolf gives an illustration of the standard for a 
milch cow, by saying that 30 lbs. of young clover hay 
will keep a cow in good milk; and that this contains of 
dry organic substance, 23 lbs., of which is digestible — al- 
buminoids 3.21, carbohydrates 11.28, and fat 0.63. This 
is .11 lb. albuminoids more, and .22 lb. of carbohydrates 
l«'>s, with .13 lb. of fat more, than the standard. Then he 
takes the richest and best meadow hay, of which 30 lbs. 
contains of organic substance 23.2 lbs., having digestible 
— albuminoids 2.49 lbs., carbohydrates 12.75 lbs., and fat 
42 lb. This is almost exactly the feeding standard. 

As will have been seen by what has preceded, the 
German standard ration for a milch cow is 24 lbs. of dry 
organic substance, containing 2.50 lbs. nitrogenous food, 
and 12.90 lbs. of carbonaceous food. To secure this, Dr. 
Wolff recommends for every 1,000 lbs of live weight : 

12 lbs. average meadow hay, 

6 " oat straw 7 . 
20 " mangolds. 
25 " brewers' grain. 

2 " cotton seed cake. 

Prof. S. W. Johnson's ration for the same rfurpose is: 
20 lbs. corn fodder. 

5 u rye straw. 

6 " malt sprouts. 

2 " cotton seed meal. 

The following milk rations are recommended by Prof. 
E. W. Stewart: 



FEEDING STOCK. 



47 



No. 1. 

18 lbs. oat straw. 

5 •• bean straw. 

6 " cotton seed cake. 

No. 2. 

20 lbs. barley straw. 
5 " pea straw. 
2 •• wheat bran. 
5 " linseed meal. 

Xo. 3. 

20 lbs. poor hay. 
5 •" con 1 meal. 
5 " cotton seed cake. 





No. 4. * 


20 lbs 

5 " 


. wheat straw, 
wheat bran, 


3 ' 

4 " 


corn meal. 
linseed meal. 


20 lbs 


No. 5. 
. fresh marsh hay. 


5 '" 
5 " 


corn meal, 
cotton seed meal. 


IOBjs 

10 " 

3 " 

5 " 


Xo. 6. 
good mead'whay 
rye straw, 
wheat bran, 
linseed meal. 



The following are given by the same author a* 



rations 



milk 



Xo. l. 

10 lbs. clover hay. 



' 


' straw. . 


4 ' 


• linseed oil cake. 


4 ' 


' wheat bran. 


2 « 


1 cotton seed cake 


4 ■ 


' corn meal. 



Xo. 2. 

10 lbs. meadow hay. 
8 "' wheat bran. 
2 " linseed meal. 
6 " corn meal. 

Xo. 3. 

18 lbs. corn fodder. 
8 "wheat bran. 
4 •' cotton seed meal. 
4 " corn meal, 



Xo, 4. 

15 lbs. straw. 
5 " hay. 

4 " cotton seed meal 
4 " bran. 
4 " corn meal. 

3 " malt sprouts. 

Xo. 5. 

10 lbs. corn fodder. 
10 " oat straw. 
2 " linseed meal. 

4 " malt sprouts. 

10 *' oat & corn meal. 

Xo. 6. 
60 lbs corn ensilage. 

5 •' hay. 

2 " linseed meal. 
4 " bran. 



FATTENING RATIONS. 



The following rations are recommended by Prof. E. 
W. Stewart for fattening cattle. The rations are for 1,000 
pounds of live weight: 



4S 



HINTS ON DAIRYING. 



No 1. 

i 
18lbs.wint'rwh't straw. 
40 " corn sugar meal. 
4 " cotton seed meal. 


No. 4. 
15 lbs. corn fodder. 

5 " malt sprouts. 

3 " corn meal. 
40 " corn sugar meal. 

No. 5. 


NO. 2. 

12 lbs oat straw. 

10 " wheat bran. 

40 " corn sugar meal. 

No. 3. 


20 lbs. best clover bay. 

50 " corn sugar meal. 

No. 6. 

20 lbs. wheat straw. 
8 " timothy hay. 

6 " cotton seed cake 


12 lbs. clover hay. 
6 " oat straw. 
40 i; corn sugar meal. 

2 " linseed meal. 


NO. 7. 

20 lbs. corn fodder. 
6 " Indian corn. 
6 " linseed cake. 


WORKING 


RATIONS. 


The following are ration 


s for oxen at hard wo 


given by Prof. Stewart : 




No. 1. 


No. 3. 


20 lbs. best meadow hay. 
10 " corn meal. 

No. 2. 


17 lbs. clover hay. 
3 " wheat brail. 
10 " corn meal. 


20 lbs. corn fodder. 
5 " clover hay. 

2 " wheat bran. 

3 " cotton seedcake. 


No. 4. 

25 lbs. oat straw. 
5 " wheat bran. 
4 " linseed cake. 



as 



DIGESTIBILITY OF FOODS. 

The following table, copied from Prof. Stewart, gives 
the digestibility of a few 7 of the more common foods : 



In loo lbs. 

CLOVER HAY. 

Albuminoids 15.3 

Carbo-hvdrates 35.8 

Crude fibre 22.2 

Fat 3.2 



Digestible. 



Digestible 
ill 2.000 lbs. 



10.7 

37.5 
2.1 



214 

752 
42 



1008 



FEEDING STOCK. 49 



Digestible 
In 100 lbs. Digestible, in 2.000 lbs. 



A V ERAGKMEADO W HA Y . 

Albuminoids. 9.7 5.4 108 

Carbo-hydrates 41.6) A1 A Q0A 

Crude fiber , 21.9 y 41 '° 820 

Fat 2.5 1.0 20 

948 
CORN FODDER. 

Albuminoids 4.4 3.2 66 

Carbo hydrates 37.9 ( 

Crude fiber 25.0 \ 

Fat. 1.3 1.0 _20 

954 



43.4 



OAT STRAW. 

Albuminoids 4.0 1.4 28 

Carbo-hvdrates 36.2) , n 1 en9 

Crude fibre 39.5 J 4U1 wz 

Fat 2.0 0.7 _14 

844 

LINSEED OIL CAKE. 

Albuminoids, 28.3 23.77 475 

Carbo-hydrates : 32.3 ? , UK 7A o 

Fibre ..." 10.0 \ 35 ' lb W6 

Fat 10.0 9.0 180 

1358 
WHEAT BRAN. 

Albuminoids 15.0 12.9 252 

Carbo-hvdrates 52.2 ) , oa OKO 

Fibre. 10.1 $ 4Z * b 852 

Fat 3.2 2.6 52 

1156 

CORN MEAD. 

Albuminoids 10.0 8.4 168 

Carbo-hydrates 62.1 \ fin R 1 01 

Crude fibre 5.5 5 b0 ' b 1212 

Fat 6.5 4.8 96 

1476 
OATS. 

Albuminoids 12.0 9.0 180 

Carbo-hydrates 55.0 ) , „ A CCA 

Crude fibre 9.3 J 4d '° 860 

Fat . .... 6.5 4.7 94 

1134 



50 



II r NTS ON DAIRYING. 



ELEMENTS OF FOOD. 

We give the names of a few foods, with their relative 
amount of nitrogenous and carbonaceous elements: 



fcfi 

FOODS. ^ 


ions. 

irbon 
iceous 


S3 — s. 
FOODS. U 5 -g <U 


2 


C ** 


ft = c * 


Meadow hay, medium ] 


to 8.0 


Potatoes l 


to 10.6 


Red clover, medium 1 


" 5.9 


Artichokes 1 


" 8.7 


Lucerue,good ] 


L " 2.8 


Ruttabagas 1 


•• 8.3 


Swedish clover (alsike) 1 


" 4.9 


Sugar beets 1 


" 17.0 


Orchard grass, in blos'm 


L " 6.5 


Carrots 1 


" 9.3 


White clover, medium 1 


" 5.0 


Turnips 1 


" 5.8 


Timothy 1 


" 8.1 


Wheat, grain 1 


•' 5.8 


Blue grass, in blossom ; 


. " 7.5 


Rye, grain 1 


" 7.0 


Red top 


L " 5.4 


Barley, grain 1 


" 7.9 


Foddej rye ] 


L " 7.2 


Oats, grain 1 


'• 6.1 


Italian rye grass 


I " 6.3 


.Maize, grain 1 


" S.6 


Hungarian grass 


L "' 7.1 


Millet, grain l 


" 5.4 


Rich pasture grass : 


" 3.6 


Peas, grain 1 


" 2.9 


Green maize, German i 


" 8.9 


Buckwheat, grain 1 


11 7.4 


Fodder oats ] 


L " 7.2 


Cotton seed 1 


■• 4.6 


Korghum i 


[ " 7.4 


Pumpkins 1 


" 18.4 


Pasture clover, young ] 


L si 2 5 


Coarse wheat bran 1 


" 5.6 


Red clover, before bl's'm ] 


1 " 3 - 8 


Wheat middlings 1 


" 6.9 


Ked clover, in blossom : 


. " 5.7 


Rye bran 1 


; ' 5.3 


White clover, in blossom 1 


L " 4.2 


Barley bran 1 


•• 4.5 


Buckwheat, in blossom ] 


L " 5.1 


Buckwheat bran l 


" 4.1 


Fodder cabbage 


" 5.2 


Hempseed cake 1 


•• 1.5 


Ruttabaga leaves 1 


L "- 3.9 


Sunflower 1 


" 1.3 


Fermented hay. from 




Corn bran 1 


" 10.3 


maize 1 


l " 12.0 


Brewers' grain 1 


" 3.0 


Fermented hay, from 




Malt sprouts 1 


" 2.2 


beet leaves 1 


" 4.0 


Wheat meal 1 


'• 5.7 


Fermented hay, from 




Rape cake 1 


" 1.7 


red clover 1 


[ " 4.1 


Rape meal, extracted 1 


" 1.3 


Winter wheat straw 


L " 45.8 


Barley, middlings 1 


" 0.0 


Winter rye straw 


" 52.0 


Oat bran l 


" 9.7 


Winter barley straw 


I " 40.5 


Linseed cake 1 


" 2.0 


Oat straw- 


L " 29.9 


Linseed meal, extracted 1 


" 1.4 


Corn stalks 


" 34.4 


Cof'n-seed meal, decort. 1 


" 1.8 


Seed clover 


L " 7.4 


Cot'n-s'd cake.undecoi t. 1 


" 1.7 


Wheat chaff 


L '■ 24.1 


Cow's milk l 


'• 4.4 


Rye chaff 


L " 32.6 


Buttermilk l 


" 2.6 


Oat chaff 


I •" 23.8 


Skimmed milk i 


•' 1.9 


Barley chaff 


1 " 30.4 


Cream 1 


" 30.5 



FEEDING STOCK. 51 

ENSILAGE. 

Major Henry E. Alvord, of Houghton Farm, N. Y., 

gives the following as the range and average of analyses 

by a large number of eminent scientists: 

Range in 100 lbs. Average. 

Total dry matter 15. to to 25.90 18.60 

Water... 81,90 to 71.10 81.10 

Protein 0.90 to 1.90 1.30 

Fat 0.30 to 0.90 0.G0 

Nitrogen-tree extract.. . 7.00 to 13.10 9.60 

Crude Ki.er 1.70 to 7.90 5.90 

Asb 0.90 to t.10 1.20 

REMARKS. 

It is safe to always feed cotton seed meal, bran, or lin- 
seed cake with corn fodder, or fodder corn, or ensilage. 
And it will always be found to work well if corn meal is 
fed with clover hay. Corn ensilage with clover hay will 
constitute a proper feed. To avoid waste, and secure the 
best results, we must learn to balance the nitrogenous and 
carbonaceous foods. Our greatest difficulty in feeding* 
as in manuring the soil, is to secure enough of the nitro- 
genous elements. These are what we have mainly to 
look out for, the carbonaceous foods usually being over 
abundant. 

Xot only must we proportion the elements of food pro- 
perly, but we must prepare the food so that it will be in 
a proper condition. It may contain all the elements, but 
in consequence of being in a bad or wrong condition, the 
animal cannot digest it. There is plenty of carbon in 
coal, but who would expect the animal stomach to digest 
it ? So there is nitrogen in saltpeter and gun-cotton, but 
they are not in a suitable condition or form for diges- 



OX HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

fcion, and hence have no food value. Most raw vegeta- 
bles are indigestible in the human stomach, but cook 
them, and thus put them in a proper condition, and they 
become nutritious foods. 

There are few, if any, perfect foods. Every food needs 
to be supplemented with something else. Hpnce it is 
that both men and animals want variety. Summer pas- 
ture, composed of mixed grasses, makes the best food for 
all kinds of stock. Meadow hay, cut at the right time 
and properly cured — provided there is a mixture of 
grasses — makes a proper food for winter; but even this 
needs to be accompanied by roots, ensilage or something 
of a juicy nature, as a relish, if for nothing else, and as 
an aid to digestion. 

In a state of nature, roaming free, animals select and 
balance their rations according to the cravings of appe- 
tite. But when domesticated, the} 7 have no such freedom 
of choice, except perhaps in a few of the summer months. 
In winter, they must take what is given to them. It is 
our duty, therefore, to give their food a proper balance 
of elements as far as possible; and in thus conforming 
to the laws of nature, w 7 e shall find both the greatest 
economy and the greatest profit. 



» 



n^:sr IDLING- MILK. 



fT is a comparatively easy operation to milk, if one 
knows how. The process is about as simple as that 
of Columbus in making an egg stand on end, but it re- 
quires skill, practice and a muscular hand to do it well. 
Grasping the teat so as to fill it with milk, and then 
tighten the thumb and fore finger so as to prevent a re- 
turn of the milk to the udder as the rest of the fingers 
are gently but firmly closed, so as to give a downward 
pressure and expel the milk, is not likely to be done by 
the novice the first time trying. But ordinarily, the 
performance of this operation is soon achieved by any 
one who wishes to learn, though it is declared by some 
that they "never could learn to milk." Substitute 
"would' 1 for "could, 11 and we think the truth is more 
nearly approximated. Still there is a great difference in 
milkers, as well as in cows, the man or woman with a 
good grip in the hand having decidedly the advantage, 
both as regards ease and expedition — and it is quite im- 
portant that the milk should all be quickly and continu- 
ously drawn from the cow after the milking is begun, 
and while the cow is in the mood of " giving down.' 1 



54 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

KEEP QUIET. 

If a cow is suddenly disturbed, so as to get excited, or 
gets tired and out of patience, the flow of milk may be 
prematurely stopped. If this disturbance is continued 
from time to time, the effect will be to permanently les- 
sen the flow, or " dry up " the cow. Anything that irri- 
tates a cow, while being milked, reduces both quality 
and quantity. Hence, milking should be clone in a quiet 
and orderly manner. Treat the cow very kindly and 
gently, so as to gain her confidence, and be as careful as 
possible not to hurt her teats by unnecessarily tearing 
open any cracks there may be, or pinching any warts, 
and be sure to not dig your finger-nails into the teats. 

REGULARITY. 

It is a good plan to milk cows regularly in the same 
order, taking the same one first, and Aviucling up with the 
same one every time. Regularity of hour in commenc- 
ing the milking of the herd is an advantange in securing 
the best results, since animals as well as men are greatly 
the creatures of habit, and when the time comes around 
the cow will desire to be milked and all the functions of 
her system will concur in this desire. 

KEEP DOWN THE FOUL ODORS. 

The milking should be done in a sweet, clean place — 
either a stable kept scrupulously clean, and plaster or 
other deoderizer freely used, or in a row of stanchions 
in an open shed, with barely a roof to keep off storm and 
sunshine, and no filthy deposits allowed to accumulate 



HANDLING MILM. 55 

around it. The milk, as fast as drawn, should be re- 
moved from the place of milking, lest it absorb odors 
from the droppings, the breath, or the exhalations from 
the cow's body — or even from the sweat and grime of the 
person and clothes of the milker — for milk is extremely 
sensitive to these influences. It is much more so than is 
popularly supposed, and should be put in a sweet atmos- 
phere as soon as possible when drawn. Fine fancy 
goods, with the most delicious and delicate flavor, cannot 
be made from milk that has been exposed to the influence 
of a foul atmosphere. 

KEEP OUT THE DIRT. 

So, also, great care should be taken to keep out all 
hairs, dirt and filth of every kind. If permitted to get 
into the milk, filth cannot be entirely strained out, and 
hence some of its odors and flavors will linger in the 
fats of the milk and appear in the product munufactured 
from it. The indispensable necessity for clean utensils 
has already been mentioned. Filth from this source will 
not only affect odor and flavor, but is quite likely to con- 
tain the germs of ferment which will multiply in the 
milk a'nd product, and cause disastrous results. With a 
clean can, clean pails and clean hands, begin the task of 
milking by brushing off all loose materials from the 
cow's side that may rattle down into the pail, carefully 
brush and clean the udder and teats, and then place the 
pail between your knees in a way to prevent the cow 
putting her foot into it, or upsetting it, if she should 
move about nervously, or be suddenly startled — which 
should not be permitted if it is possible to avoid it. 



56 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

LET OUT THE COWS. 

As t'ast as milked, it is best to let the cows go. This 
gives more room, reduces the generation of heat in the 
stable or milking place, and lessens the amount of drop- 
pings and consequent bad odors rising from them. 
Those left will soon understand this and not get uneasy. 

A LICK OF MEAL. 

II" the cows have been prepared for milking by giving 
them a lick of meal, or a little dry hay, when they come 
into the stable, it will be found to have a good effect. It 
will also cultivate a willingness to come home at milk- 
ing time and take their respective places in the stanch- 
ions. It pays to please and satisfy a cow. She will de- 
posit her appreciation in the pail. 

CARE OF MILK. 

When the milking is over, the milk should be taken 
as directly to the place of manufacture as possible. If it 
must be kept over night, see that it is well stirred and 
properly cooled to 70 degrees Fahrenheit, before leaving 
it. Do not put on a close cover, unless the milk is thor- 
oughly cooled. It is far better to deliver it directly to 
the cheese or butter maker, who know r s how to care for 
it, and has facilities for doing the work — or, at least, 
ought to have. Very much depends on having the milk 
delivered in good condition. If it is not, no after care 
and skill can make a perfect product from it. True, if 
all right when delivered, it may be afterward injured or 

.led, but it is not likely to be. It is therefore the duty 
of the patron to do his part of the work all right; then 



HANDLING MILK. 57 

be may with some reason blame the operator if the result 
is not right. But butter and cheese makers are too 
often expected to turn out first-class products from sec- 
ond or tbird class milk— a task impossible to perform. 
With good milk and proper facilities, tbere is no valid 
excuse for failure. 

Tbe first object is the production of good milk. This 
is of prime importance. Without it, the after product 
must of necessity be inferior. The next object is to pre- 
serve the milk in its best condition, all through the 
handling, in order to reach the best results. Milk is 
often spoiled in the handling. Hence care and judgment 
must be exercised to maintain the proper conditions to 
the end. 

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 

Few understand the delicate and complex nature of 
milk. It is a compound of many ingredients ; and if any 
one of these is disturbed, it affects the whole. Their 
union is very weak and unstable, and liable to be broken 
by many influences. To give a clearer idea of the com- 
position of milk, we copy the following diagram, pre- 
pared by Dr. E. Lewis Sturtevant, Director of the New 
York Agricultural Experiment Station: 



58 



HINTS ON DAIRYING. 



- P. 

P" P 



o 

9= 






S3- 






r 

2' 



^' 



p J 



a 



DO 



& 



a> o 



^2 M 



i 

9= 






n 






£J 



C5 



JO. 

95 



4 
O 



a 

CD 
3 



j* 



HANDLING MILK. 5i> 

Here are between twenty and thirty different constit- 
uents, in various proportions. Their combination is 
effected through the organism of the cow, the ultimate 
work being performed by the udder, where it is no soon- 
er completed than reaction begins and change is the 
result. 

DETERIORATION OF MILK IN THE UDDER. 

The longer the milk remains in the udder, the more it 
is impoverished by absorption ot some of its ingredients. 
This is specially true of the fats, which are taken up by 
the absorbent vessels of the udder and carried into gen- 
eral circulation. For this reason, the first milk drawn — 
which is the first secreted, and therefore remains in the 
udder the longest — is the poorest milk drawn, and that 
which is last secreted and last milked (the strippings) is 
the richest. Hence, the longer the interval between 
milkings, the poorer the milk for butter making. Three 
milkings a day will give better results than two. 

DO FATS 3BXPAND BEFORE CONGEALING? 

If milk is to be set for cream, the sooner it is put to 
rest and the less heat it looses before setting, the better 
for the separation of the cream. If cooled down much, 
the cream will rise more slowly and separate more im- 
perfectly. In cooling, the fluids and semi-fluids condense 
faster than the fats, and hence become relatively heavier, 
and settle as the fat globules rise, by virtue of the law of 
gravitation. The theory has been broached by Mr. H. B. 
Grurler, of DeKalb, Illinois, that in sudden cooling, the 
fluids and semi-fluids are not only condensed, but the fats 



60 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

expanded, thus increasing the difference in specific gra- 
vity in both directions. In this way. the rapid rising of 

cream in sudden cooling he thinks may be better accoun- 
ted for. His idea is based on the tact thai waler, just 
before congealing, begins to expand and continues to ex- 
pand as the temperature lowers. Fats consolidate at a 
much higher temperature than water, and lie thinks the 
same law of expansion may intervene in both cases. So 
far as we are aware, it is not known whether fats do act- 
ually expand before and after reaching the point of con- 
gelation or not, and we shall feel an interest in having 
the question positively settled by the scientists. If it is 
a fact, it introduces a new element into our philosophy, 
and will help in the solution of some points not yet satis- 
factorily determined. 

EFFECTS OF FALLING TEMPERATURE. 

It is a fact that cream rises best in a falling tempera- 
ture, very slowly in a stationary one, and little or none 
in a rising temperature. Hence, in cold weather, when 
milk cools very rapidly after being drawn from the cow, 
it is the practice of many good dairymen to raise the 
temperature of the milk to 100 degrees when set. In 
this wa} T , they get a -quicker and more complete separa- 
tion of the cream as the milk cools down. 

It would be a good idea to have, in all butter factories, 
apparatus for setting milk so constructed that the tem- 
perature of the mass of milk can be gradually and even- 
ly raised to 100 degrees, or even slightly above; for it is 
difficult to deliver warm milk in a good condition — es- 



HANDLING MILK. 61 

pecially in hot weather — if it lias to be carried any con- 
siderable distance, while in cold weather, it is sure to 
get considerably reduced in temj erature, both in milking 
and on the road to the factory. ii; j nce, it seems almost 
absolutely essential, if the best results are to be attained, 
to have some means of properly raising the temperature 
of the milk at the factory. 

UOOLING AND AIRING. 

If milk is to be sent to the factory, for either butter or 
cheese making, where the distance is half a mile or 
more, it should be aired and cooled — especially if it is to 
be shut up in a tight can. This cooling should be done 
as speedily as possible after milking, to avoid taint or 
souring. If the milk is kept over night, such airing and 
cooling are absolute^ indispensable. The mode of doing 
this must vary with conditions and circumstances; but, 
whatever method may be adopted, we would b} r no means 
recommend putting ice directly into the milk. The ef- 
fect cannot be to improve flavor or keeping quality. 

PROTECTION FROM THE EOT SIX. 

By no means should the can of milk be exposed to the 
direct rays of a hot sun, either on the platform waiting 
for the delivery wagon, or on the wagon. Give it shelter 
and shade of some kind, in both cases. If a woolen blanket 
is wet in cold water and wrapped around the can, the 
rapid evaporation from the blanket will keep down the 
temperature. Everything that can be should be done to 
preserve milk in its normal condition. 



62 



HINTS OX DAIRYING. 



TREATMENT OF NIGHT'S AND MORNINGS MILK. 

The night's milk and the morning's milk should never 
be mixed before starting for the factory, but kept in sepa- 
rate cans amis) delivered. The effect of mixing will be 
seen soon enough at the factory, and often much too soon 
in hot weathef; If the morning's milk were made as 
cool as the night's, the effect of mixing would not be so 
speedy and disastrous. But it appears to be an immuta- 
ble law, that reducing the temperature and then raising 
it hastens decomposition. A low temperature only re- 
tards decomposition; it does not prevent it, unless very 
low and it is continued. As soon as the temperature is 
raised, decomposition sets in with accelerated rapidity, 
as if to make up for lost time. Hence, we have always 
looked upon low temperatures in the dairy as objection- 
able. As low as 60 degrees but not below 50 degrees is 
the limit which we prefer. We think this range more 
effective for long keeping than a lower one. Certainly, 
daily goods made and kept within this range will not go 
to decay so soon as in a higher temperature. 

RECEIVING. 

In receiving either milk or cream from the patron, it 
is essential not only that justice be done in the weight or 
measure, but that the patron should be satisfied of this 
fact. The agent sent out to gather cream should be an 
honest man, in whom the patrons as well as the employer 
have confidence, and should understand his business and 
do it in a workman-like manner, so as to inspire confi- 
dence. He should also be versed in the various tricks 



HANDLING MILK. 63 

that may be resorted to by patrons to deceive and cheat, 
and be on his guard, quick to discern any suspicious sur- 
roundings or indications. As much depends on his judg- 
ment and observation as on his honesty — especially if 
any of the patrons are disposed to be dishonest, as is 
sometimes the case where it would generally be least 
suspected. The later device of not only measuring cream 
by the gauge, but of testing its yield of butter by churn- 
ing a sample, is not oniy a guard, to considerable extent, 
against fraud, but more closely approximates justice by 
getting at the actual quality of the cream, on which de- 
pends it.s value. There is no associated system yet 
devised — save that of churning every patron's cream sep- 
arately and weighing the product — that secures exact 
justice to all. Nature does not appear to have furnished 
standards of commercial measure or value for the pur- 
pose of indicating mine and thine in mixed transactions, 
or in speculative exchange. . We have only relative and 
approximate guides, by which justice, in a business 
sense, is by no means secured. 

TESTING. 

Where milk is delivered at the factory, we have as 
yet no standard test of value. All the receiver can do is 
to see that it is in a normal condition — neither sour nor 
tainted, nor containing bad odors. For this purpose, the 
smell must mainly be relied on. Hence, healthy and 
keen olfactories are a great aid here, as in some other 
cases. If one catches the fumes when the can cover is 
first removed, or as the milk runs into the weighing can, 
he is pretty sure to detect any very positive bad odor. 



()4 HINTS OS RUKYIN 

The eye, to one of experience, is almost certain to detect 
any great variation. Even slight watering is seen by 

some from the peculiarity of the reflection of light from 
the surface — especially when in motion. Much water 
shows from the '-thin" appearance of the fluid. Where 
the smell or appearance are cause for suspicion, or there 
is any other cause, a sample may be saved and such tests 
as are at hand may be applied. The so-called lactometer 
will show whether the specific gravity is below or above 
the normal standard. The cream gauge will give the 
per cent, of cream at a given temperature. If, after- 
ward, a sample right from the herd, taken so as to know 
that it has not been tampered with, shows better quality 
by these two tests, it is pretty conclusive evidence that 
the milk from which the factory sample was taken was 
not in a normal condition. If the herd has been subject 
to no change of feed or conditions between the times of 
taking the two samples, any jury would be safe in bring- 
ing in a verdict against the defendant for watering, skim- 
ming, or otherwise tampering with his milk, as the facts 
in evidence might indicate. 

BAD MILK. 

Sour or tainted milk, to any perceptible degree, ought 
not to be received at the factory. One such mess will 
injure, if it does not spoil, a whole batch. The sour milk 
is likeh^ to lead to a sour, leaky batch, and the tainted 
milk to huffy if not floating curd, and porous, quickly- 
off-flavor and decaying cheese. AVe have little patience 
with those who deliver such milk, and none with those 
who attempt to devise means to work it into palatable 



HANDLING MILK. 65 

cheese and thus to get it into the unsuspecting stomachs 
of the consumers. It is too much like making omelets of 
rotten eggs. This is especially the case with tainted milk. 
The first stages of souring are not so objectionable, so far 
as wholesomeness is concerned. Sour milk may make 
good pot-cheese to which we do not object, but it will 
not make good American cheddar cheese. To attempt 
to work it into this is the worst use it can be put to. 

WEIGHING. 

All possible precautions should be taken to avoid mis- 
takes in weighing and giving credit. A hasty compari- 
son of each mess with that of the previous one delivered 
by the same man will indicate any marked departure 
from weight and serve as a check against error. It is 
well to always announce the weight to the patron, who 
then has a chance for comparison with his average or 
previous messes. He will be pretty likely to mention any 
marked variation, especially if it is against him. Some 
patrons like to have a pass-book, in which the weight of 
each mess is entered. This is a little trouble to -the re- 
ceiver when in a hurry, but it is a complete check 
against errors of rmtry on the factory book, and against 
the forgetfulness of the patron, who may get the impres- 
sion that he has delivered more milk in a given time 
than he has been credited with. Everything that guards 
against error or misunderstanding will be found to pay 
and give satisfaction to honest men. An honest factory- 
man not only wants to be right, but to appear right and 
have the confidence of his patrons. A dishonest one will 
want to appear right, and it is well to take such precau- 



(>() HINTS OX DAIRYING. 

lions as will make him what he appears. See that the 
weighing can is properly balanced, that the scales are 
true, and that the weights are correct. An honest man 
will bear watching, and it is absolutely necessaiy to 
watch a rogue. Where the milk is sold to the factory, 
of course all interest in the matter with the patron ends 
when he gets his milk correctly weighed and his money 
lor it. Where the pro rata system is carried out, this 
interest extends to the weighing of the cheese, its mar- 
keting and the division of the proceeds. 

KEEPING MILK. 

When the milk is in the cheese vat, it should be 
stirred and aired at night until the temperature is down 
to 70 degrees, if it is to stand quiet; if an agitator is 
used, which is preferable, no further attention need be 
paid to the milk but to see that the supply of cold water 
is ample and continuous. As to mixing the morning's 
with the night's milk, it appears to be preferable to 
working up the two milkings separately. 









BTJTTJER MAKIiSTO. 



HERE really are but four systems of setting milk 
for cream, notwithstanding the numerous inven- 
tions and devices. These are: 1. Cooling in water : 
2. cooling in air; 3. shallow^ setting; 4. deep setting. 

DEEP SETTIKU AKD WATER COOLLNG. 

Deep setting, whether in pails or pans, is always ac- 
companied with water and the use of ice. In many in- 
stances, however, where running w ; ater is abundant, ice 
is dispensed with, and the pails are set in pools or tanks, 
while the pans have water run around them, if not under 
them. Under-cooling, however, is pretty well understood 
to be a disadvantange, unless the vessel containing the 
milk is submerged in water or nearly so. Ice is a good 
deal used, and the milk rapidly run down in tempera- 
ture. Some think this is the better as w T ell as the 
quicker way, if not the only way to get all the cream. 
Our only objection to this rapid cooling is that it runs 
the temperature too low, and, in our opinion, injures the 
keeping quality of the product. 

EFFECT OF TOO LOW COOLING. 

If run below 40 degrees, or the point where wale]' 
begins to expand, all cooling below that point lessens 



68 HINTS ON DAlttYING. 

the difference in specific gravity between the water and 
the fat globules, and operates diametrically in t lie oppo- 
site direction to what is desired. The aim is to condense 
the water, which is a good conductor, and leave the fat 
globules, which are poor conductors, unchanged or but 
slightly contracted. In this way, the heavier fluid settles 
and drives the light particles of fat upward to rest on 
the surface. But, if we go below 40 degrees, we produce 
the directly opposite effect and retard the rising of the 
cream. For quality, we prefer the slower cooling in 
water, and think the longer time given will secure all 
the cream available and in a purer condition. 

BUTTERMILK FLAVOR. 

If more cream or butter is obtained by rapid cooling, 
we think it is because more particles of caseine are en- 
tangled in the cream and remain in the butter wdien 
churned. This would of course make more weight for 
market, but of inferior quality and sooner to go off flavor. 
But where the butter is consumed fresh from the churn, 
this does not matter so much; and if the particles of ca- 
seine give the butter a slight buttermilk flavor, it pleases, 
some palates that have been educated to like it. We. 
however, prefer the sweet, delicate flavor of cream but- 
ter, free from caseine or lactic acid. But, if one has a 
special line of customers, he must please them, whatever 
the demand maybe. If the butter is thrown on the gen- 
eral market, and there is liable to be delay in getting it 
into consumption, it cannot be made too pure, nor retain 
its rosy flavor too long. 



BUTTER MAKING. 69 

SHALLOW SETTING AND AIR COOLING. 

Generally, in shallow setting, whether in large or 
small pans, cooling the milk in air is depended upon. 
Formerly, an underground room, or one in a shady place, 
was the only appliance usually resorted to for cooling. 
But, of late years, some method of artificially cooling the 
air by the use of ice is generally adopted. In some cases, 
the milk room is made small, with low ceiling and double 
walls, so that a cake of ice near the ceiling does the cool- 
ing. Usually, however, some sort of refrigerator con- 
struction is resorted to, so that cool air from the ice- 
house, or ice placed above the milk room, is introduced 
to regulate the temperature and keep it steady. We pre- 
fer cooling in air, though it may take a little more space 
and time. By this method, extremely rapid cooling and 
low temperature are avoided, and no violence is done to 
the milk or cream. Deep setting, it is true, exposes less 
surface to the air; but if the milk is not submerged, the 
surface is likely to be cooler than the air above, and 
to condense the vapor in it, which falls with all its impu- 
rities on the surface of the cream. An)' foulness or "bad 
odors are thus absorbed and go into the butter product. 
While submerging obviates this objection and keeps out 
all impurities from the air, it also prevents all escape of 
bad odors by evaporation. Whatever that is objectiona- 
ble uiny be in the milk is retained there. By setting in 
open air, which should of course always be pure and 
sweet, the air, being cooled down and used as a medium 
for cooling the milk, takes up the exhalations of moisture 
and odor from the milk, and thus purifies it. The colder 



"iO HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

medium is always the condenser and absorbent, and it is 
only when the milk gets colder than the air above it that 
it condenses the moisture in the air and absorbs ils odor. 
This will never occur where cold air is the cooling me- 
dium. The milk theoretically can never get cooler than 
the air, while practically it remains a degree or two 
warmer than the air. 

OXYDIZINO CREAM. 

There is another advantage in using the air as a cool- 
ing medium. In shallow setting, more surface is ex- 
posed and the air, comini; in contact with the surface, 
imparts to it a portion of its oxygen, which mingles with 
the oils and develops that fine butter flavor so much rel- 
ished by most and which is a peculiarity of fine butter. 
Again, slow cooling gives more time for this oxydation 
to go on, and thus " ripen " the cream for churning with- 
out souring it. This leaves all the fine flavor in it, un- 
mixed with flavors resulting from acidification. But, 
where milk is set deep for creaming — and especially 
where there is no exposure to the air, as is the case in 
submerging — no butter flavor is developed, and the 
cream has to be kept until sour before it is properly 
oxydized. There is not a full development of butter fla- 
vor proper, but development of flavor resulting from the 
niin^linir of lactic acid with the oils. But without this 
exposure and acidification, the butter is insipid and com- 
paratively flavorless. Any subsequent exposure to the 
air soon throws the butter off flavor, the oxygen min- 
gling with the fats alone while the cream is rising and 
&\l\ swyopf! This development of flavor by oxydation is 



BUTTER MAKING. 71 

not mere theory; it has 03311 scientifically demonstrated 
at Cornell University, New York, if not elsewhere, and 
must sooner or later be generally accepted and butter 
miking proceed on a more rational and certain basis. 
But it is hard work to get people out of old ruts, or to 
overcome fixed habits and prejudices. Really scientific 
butter making, in which every step will be thoroughly 
understood and deliberatoiy taken, is a thing of the 
future. It will come in time, and then our descendants 
will wonder why we were so stupid and slow as not to 
see and adopt the simplest principles when they were 
thrust into our very faces.. But mind and judgment are 
matters of growth, the same as everything else in this 
universe of being. 

SKIMMING MILK. 

So many improvements or inventions have been intro- 
duced in the setting of milk for cream that the term 
kv skimming " has become almost a misnomer. In both 
deep and shallow setting, arrangements have been made 
in several of the patent pans and cans for drawing out 
the milk from the bottom and leaving the cream. Glass 
gauges are set in the vessels so that the exact depth of 
the cream can be seen, and the milk drawn clown 
close to the cream or a small amount of the upper por- 
tion of the milk left with the cream. In skimming with 
a skimmer or dipper, many aim to take, the upper por- 
tion of the milk, on the theory that the separation is less 
perfect toward the top than it is lower down. Especially 
may this be done where a dipper or skimmer without 
holes is used. It is claimed by some careful experiment- 



HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

ers and close observers that this adds to the quantity of 
butter yielded without deteriorating the quality. 

WHEN TO SKIM. 

Whether skimming off the cream or drawing off the 

milk be practiced, the question arises as to the proper 
time for performing the operation. The more general 
practice is to "skim" just as the milk gives unmistaka- 
ble signs of acidity, or thickens a vevy little on the bot- 
tom of the pan or can. A few prefer to skim the cream 
sweet, and still another few let the milk lopper. This 
wide divergence of opinion and practice shows how very 
imperfectly is the real philosophy of butter making un- 
derstood ; but, notwithstanding this, each one is usually 
very tenacious in his belief as to thp superiority of his 
own practice. A few fancy butter makers say that the 
finest butter is made from sweet cream, raised in cold air 
by shallow setting. It is insisted by them that airing 
and oxydizing, and not souring, is what tk ripens " cream 
and fits it for easy churning, while this airing and oxydi- 
zing imparts the fine aroma so much desired in the finest 
butter. This view of the origin or development of flavor 
is sustained by experiments made at Cornell University, 
at the suggestion or under the supervision of Prof. L. B. 
Arnold. It is also claimed that the lack of flavor and 
the short-keeping of sweet-cream butter churned from 
cream raised b} r deep setting is due to its lack of oxygen, 
and that souring the cream thus raised, before churning, 
both oxydizes it and imparts a ranker and more positive 
flavor resulting from the effects of the lactic acid. We 
think both propositions look reasonable, and we should 



BUTTER MAKING. i 6 

like to see a series of scientific experiments made to de- 
termine both the effects of oxygen and the effects of lac- 
tic acid on the butter product of cream. At present, 
theory and practice vary so widely with different butter 
makers who turn out a high-priced butter for the mar- 
ket, that one is led to doubt all theories and query whe- 
ther the quality of butter does not depend on something 
not yet known, which is independent of all current theo- 
ries and practices. 

CHURNIXG. 

And as to the proper time of churning, there is an 
equal divergence of opinion and practice. One churns 
his cream sweet, another wants it slightly changed, a 
third wants positive acidity in the cream, and a fourth 
loppers the cream, while a fifth lets the cream stand 
even twelve hours after loppering — and this extremely 
sour cream butter sells for the very highest market 
price. So we are left all at sea, so far as acidity is an 
element in butter making. Again, to further illustrate 
these extremes, while a gentleman in Vermont is setting 
his neighbors agog by raising cream in a vacuum, a Can- 
ada gentleman is experimenting with an invention to 
raise cream by hydrostatic pressure and get the fat of the 
milk so pure as to dispense with churning. We hope 
both will succeed. 

TEMPERATURES. 

There is not so wide a difference in opinion and prac- 
tice as regards the temperature at which churning should 

be done in order to secure the best results; yet there is 
10 



; I hints ox DAIRYING. 

quite a wide range from 55 degrees to 65 clegiees — or 
10 degrees Fahrenheit. But only a few go as high as 65 
degrees or as low as 55 degrees. The great majority 
favor 60 degrees to 63 degrees as the proper range of 
temperature for different seasons and conditions. Some 
favor 58 degrees to GO degrees, and all appear satisfied 
with results. It is not improbable that different degrees 
of acidity in the cream require different degrees of tem- 
perature for churning, and that sweet cream requires 
still another variation of temperature. So the breed, 
condition of the cows, kind of feed, quality of feed, char- 
acter of the water drank, length of time the cows have 
been in milk, and other considerations, require variations 
in the temperature. Sure we are that the difference in 
conditions and surroundings must explain some of the 
differences of opinions and practices among butter 
makers. 

WHAT MAKES TFfE BUTTER COME. 

It is not known whether concussion or friction, or 
both, cause the separation of the butter from the butter- 
milk in churning. But we suspect that concussion is the 
real agent that produces the separation, as we have 
really seen no churn that did not in some way produce 
more or less concussion. All the churns we have seen 

1 appeared to produce good results, and we find every 

"man is satisfied with the work of the churn he 

. whatever the kind, style or patent. We cannot, 

therefore, recommend any style of churn as superior to 

another, bint we prefer the simple and less expensive 



BUTTER MAKING. 75 

forms, as not onl} T costing less but being easier to keep 
clean. 

The churning should be steady and not violent. ' A too 
rapid or sudden separation of the butter from the butter- 
milk is not desirable. It is no recommend for a churn 
that it churns quick. Such a churn is apt to injure the 
so-called grain of the butter and make it salvy and 
greasy. The least churning that will separate the butter 
from the buttermilk is the best. 

WHEN TO STOP CHURNING. 

The improved modern method, now in practice by 
the best butter makers generally, is to stop the churn as 
soon as the butter is collected in particles the size of 
wheat kernels.. Just before this, when the first signs of 
the separation of the butter is seen, the sides of the churn 
are washed down with cold water — usually below 60 
degrees, or about 55 degrees — to not only prevent waste, 
but to harden the butter and make it easier to handle. 
When the granules are the size of wheat kernels, the 
butter is drawn off or the butter taken out of the butter- 
milk, as the case may be. If the butter is left in the 
churn, water is poured in to float the butter, which is 
then gently agitated a moment and the water drawn off. 
This operation is repeated until the water runs clear. 
Sometimes one of the washings is in brine, which coagu- 
lates the caseine into a soluble form and prepares it to 
be washed out afterward. In this wa} T , it is believed that 
purer, longer-keeping butter can be made. In some 
eases, however, butter makers have customers who want 



<(> HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

a buttermilk flavor in their butter. They, therefore, do 
not wash the butter, or wash it very little. Such butter 
must be consumed at once, as it will not keep. 

WORKING. 

By this method of retaining the butter in a granulated 
form, only sufficient working is required to evenly work 
in the silt. The less working the better. 

SALTING. 

The salt, after the butter is properly drained, can be 
carefully mixed with the butter by stirring. When thor- 
oughly incorporated, barely pressing the butter together 
into a solid mass is all that is needed. If one does not 
want butter very salty to the taste, it can be evenly and 
nicely salted by completely wetting it with saturated 
brine, then carefully pressing the granulated butter to- 
gether and leaving in it as much of the strong brine as 
will remain. We have seen butter salted in this way, 
and it was very evenly and completely salted, having in 
it no undissolved grains of salt, but it was not as salt to 
the taste as some like. 

About an ounce to the pound is good salting; but 
more or less salt must be used to suit the taste of custo- 
mers. None but refined salt should be put into butter. 
Xo salt is better for this purpose than the Onondaga F. 
F., which is American, and the cheapest salt fit for dairy 
use that can be obtained. 

The principal office of the salt in butter is to impart 
an agreeable flavor, in conjunction with the natural 
aroma of fine butter; but it is a fact that too much salt 



BUTTER MAKING. 7< 

injures uood flavor, and it may, to some extent, be used 
to cover up or neutralize bad flavors. We do not recom- 
mend its use for this latter purpose, preferring that the 
natural flavor of butter from pure cream should be pre- 
served. 

SALT AS A PRESERVATIVE. 

Salt does very little to preserve butter. It retards the 
decomposition of the caseous and albuminous materials 
left in it; but if butter is properly made of cream not 
mixed with loppered milk and is completely washed with 
pure water, it is a fair question if butter will not keep 
longer without salt than with it. There are instances on 
record where butter has been kept sweet without salt for 
a long time. .We half suspect that, though salt at first 
retards decomposition, the salt itself, in time, decompos- 
es and becomes sodium and chlorine gas, or enters into 
new combinations with tlie constituents of the butter, 
and thus makes new compounds that do not in the least 
improve the flavor. We have no positive evidence of this, 
but have had this suspicion awakened by facts related 
about the keeping of butter and by a process of general 
reasoning. It is true that salt is one of the most stable 
compounds known, but we have proof that it can be re- 
solved into its original elements, when stronger affinities 
are presented lor one or both of them to unite with. It 
would not, therefore, be strange if such decomposition 
sometimes follows when used in our food preparations. 

PACKING BETTER. 

It is quite a knack to properly pack butter in large 
packages, and the work needs to be carefully done. Some 



78 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

use it too violently, by pounding it down, and thus ma- 
king the butter greasy or oily. It should be gently 
pressed together in the package in such a way as to leave 

do spaees tilled with air, for the air will surely mingle 
with the surrounding butter and injure its flavor. A 
good way is to begin the pressure at the center and work 
carefully toward the circumference, so that all air may 
escape at the sides. In this way, perfect solidity of the 
mass is secured, and it is left in the best condition for 
keeping, so far as the packing is concerned. 

PREPARING THE PACKAGE. 

Before putting the butter in the package, the package 
should be soaked in water, so as to remove the taste of 
the wood, and then thoroughly soaked in saturated brine, 
so that the wood will not draw the salt from the butter 
which comes in contact with it. If it does, the butter 
thus deprived of salt wall turn white, have a sickish fla- 
vor, and soon turn rancid. It is a good idea to not only 
sprinkle a thin layer of salt over the bottom of the pack- 
age, but to rub the moist inner sides with dairy salt, and 
thus make sure that there is salt enough in contact with 
the wood to prevent its absorbing the salt from the butter. 

CLOSING THE PACKAGE. 

When a package is filled, a piece of thin muslin, cut 
so as to just fit into the top of the package and complete- 
ly cover the butter, should be wet in cold water and 
carefully placed over the top, having the edges pressed 
down close to the sides of the tub. Then the cloth 
should be completely covered with a thin layer of salt; 



BUTTER MAKING. 79 

and if the salt is moistened, so as to form of it a thick 
paste that will become air-tight when it dries, it will do 
much to keep the top of the batter clean and sweet — for 
the more nearly air tight the package is when completed 
the better it is for the preservation of the butter. Then 
put on the cover, and seal the whole as tightly as possible. 

STORING. 

Remove the package to a cool, sweet place, not above 
the temperature of 60 degrees, and set it so that it will 
absorb no moisture or odors from the ground. Much 
butter is spoiled by keeping, because of neglecting the 
temperature, and setting the bottom of the package di- 
rectly on the cellar bottom. If kept at a temperature 
above 60 degrees, butter will surely go off flavor, and 
wood will as surely draw moisture from the ground, if in 
contact with it, and become sour and musty, sooner or 
later affecting the flavor of the butter within the package. 
Nothing is to be lost, but all to be gained, by paying at- 
tention to these little things. 

STYLE OF PACKAGE. 

Of course, where a maker has a special market for 
his butter, he will put it up in such style and form of 
package as suits his customers. He needs no other 
H'uide and would injure his business if he followed one. 
But, for general market purposes, the 50 lb. tub is the 
best form. The Xew York and Boston dealers like this 
because it is convenient for the retailer, who can read- 
ily slip the tub off from the butter for either weighing or 
cutting up for nis customers. But aside from these con- 



80 HINTS OX DAIRYING. 

siderations, the Welsh tub is a very bad form of package 
for keeping butter, as it is by no means air-tight nor 
anything approaching it. Hence, butter sent to market 
in these tubs must soon be sold and go into consumption, 
or there is material depreciation in quality and a corres- 
ponding loss in price. The old-fashioned firkin, which 
could be headed up and the butter covered with brine, 
is a much better package for keeping butter. But, 
where butter is consumed as fast as it is made, and fresh 
winter made butter supplies the demand through the 
cold season, the keeping of butter for any considerable 
length of time is not of so much consideration. We 
think it fortunate that this is so. 



#- 



CHKP^SE MAKIISTGr. 



§0 much has been written and said, and so little un- 
derstood, about cheese making:, that it seems almost 
a hopeless task, as well as a thankless one, to at- 
tempt to say anything more on the subject. Sour igno- 
ramuses and floating charlatans have spoiled more curds 
than have been spoiled by any defect in the milk. Sour, 
whey-soaked cheese has been the rage, and it is generally 
supposed that acid alone makes a firm cheese, when the 
experience of every cheese maker is that it is very diffi- 
cult, by the ordinary processes, to make a firm curd out 
of sour milk — which, of course, no one ought to be asked 
to make into cheese — unless it be pot-cheese. Acid may 
make a curd solid, but not until it has cut out a large 
share of the goodness of the curd, and the cheese result- 
ing will be about as digestible as so much putty. 

DUTY OF PATRONS. 

It is the duty of every patron of a cheese factory to 
send good milk to it, and to send the milk in good condi- 
tion. It is not only his duty, but his interest to do this. 
A bad mess of milk may spoil a whole vat-full. This not 
only entails loss on his neighbor, where the factory is 

run on the pr> rata plan, but the patron must stand his 
11 



82 HINTS ii\ DAIRYING. 

share of the loss. A.side from the loss entailed on others 
• and himself, he ought to be ashamed to deliver milk in 
a bad condition. There is no valid excuse for it, It 
ought to be hrs pride to deliver milk in as good condition 
as anybody does. If he cannot, he should leave the bus. 
iness, and go into something in which he has the ability 
to excel. Care and cleanliness, if the cows are healthy 
and have proper food, will insure good milk always. 

UNREASONABLE EXPECTATION. 

It is unreasonable to expect a cheese maker to turn a 
prime article of cheese out of poor milk. If one carries 
shoddy cloth to the tailor, he expects a. shoddy suit in 
return, not a broadcloth one. So, if he carries bad milk 
to the factory, he must expect bad cheese. If he takes 
sour apples to the cider mill, he does not expect sweet- 
flavored cider, but sour. So, if he carries sour milk to 
the cheese factory, he must expect sour cheese. These 
defects, when they exist in a small degree, may be over- 
come, or nearly so, and a pv-nible che33.ej*made. But, is 
the cheese made from imperfect milk really a fit article 
of food? Who would work rotten eggs into custard, or 
sour meal into bread ? Yet this is just as consistent as 
working sour or tainted milk into cheese, and the pro- 
duct is just as wholesome. That which makes stinking 
eggs makes stinking milk — decayed albumen -which is 
just as wholesome in the one as in the other. 

GUARANTEES. 

The cheese maker who guarantees his cheese is very 
foolish if he does not insist on a guarantee of good milk, 



CHEESE MAKING. 83 

nor should lie be compelled to rely on his judgment 
formed in the haste of receiving the milk. A tricky man 
uiay juggle a bad mess of milk on to the best expert. 
Mow can the cheese maker tell whether the milk is from 
a garget ty udder, or the first milk after calving— both of 
which may develop in a xery offensive way when the 
milk is heated up V So the milk may be so nearly tainted 
or so nearly sour that it will not stand the process of 
heating up and cooking. The law ought to be very se- 
vere on the man who delivers bad milk at a factory, or 
sells it to anyone. The factoryman who pays the price 
of good milk for sour or tainted milk is certainly very 
short-sighted, and cannot long maintain the respect of 
the man who sells it to him, nor sustain himself pecuni- 
arily. The man who pays cash for milk has the right, 
above all others, to demand that the milk shall be sweet 
and wholesome. This is one point that should be insist- 
ed upon — the delivery of good milk in good condition. 

HEATING. 

After the milk is all in, or the requisite amount is in 
the vat, the heat may at once be started and raised, to 
some point between 80 and 86 degrees. If we set below 
this, the rennet works too slow; if we set above, it is 
thought to work too fast — so custom has fixed upon this 
range of temperature for setting, and there appears to be 
no valid objection to it. But while the temperature of 
the milk is being raised, and before, it should receive 
frequent stirrings to keep the cream "from rising, and 
thus becoming partially or wholly wasted. The rennet 



v 1 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

should by no means Le added until the temperature stops 
rising or so nearly so that by the time the rennet is 
stirred in and the stirring stopped, because the milk be- 
gins to coagulate, a stationary temperature will have 
been reached. 

COLORING. 

The coloring fluid should be added just before the 
rennet is — unless white cheese is made. There is a lim- 
ited demand for white cheese for the London market. 
But do not make the color too high— as there is a limited 
demand for high-colored goods, and this mainly from the 
South, in spring and fall. Nor should the color be too 
pale, as there is really no demand for pale cheese. It 
should be either white or of a medium hue — a bright, 
golden y r ellow. There is a demand for uniformity of 
color, as buyers often want large lots, all of the same hue 
or shade. In selecting such a lot, they may rule out 
first-class cheese that is to pale or too high-colored. The 
universal use of the same manufacture of coloring extract 
guaranteed of uniform strength, might secure uniformity 
in coloring. But this'is doubtful and difficult. A better, 
and we think, a feasible way, would be to have a standard 
color — like those accompanying paints — furnished to 
every cheese maker as a guide, and let him color to it 
as nearly as possible. In this way, a close approximate 
to uniformity of color might be secured. He could then 
use whatever coloring fluid he chose, and his eye would 
be his guide. Coloring does not improve the product. 
If it does no harm, it does no good beyond gratifying the 



CHEESE MAKING. 85 

eye and deceiving the palate through the common notion 
that high color and high flavor go together. 

SETTING. 

Theoretically, 98 degrees or blood heat would seem to 
be the temperature for setting, as rennet is the most ac- 
tive at this point. Usually, 82 degrees in warm weather, 
and 86 degrees in cool Aveather, are the points at which 
the rennet is added in setting. But there is no reason 
for a different temperature at different seasons, except 
that in cool weather the temperature is liable to run 
down a little — which should not and would not be the 
case, if the make room were so constructed that the tem- 
perature could be controled and kept at summer heat. 

OTHER DETAILS. 

Enough rennet should be added, as a rule, to cause 
thickening of the milk to begin in 20 minutes, at 82 de- 
grees. More or less rennet may be used, as it is designed 
to have cheese cure more or less rapidly. As a rule, the 
more rennet is used, the loAyer should be the temperature 
at which the milk is set and the curd worked. Agitation 
of the milk should be kept up for at least 15 minutes, 
where coagulation begins in 20 minutes, or as long as it 
can be and not prevent a solid coagulation. The stirring- 
after the rennet is incorporated is merely to keep the 
cream from rising. The less cream gets to the surface, 
the less wa>te there will be. In a cool room, where the 
surface cools quickly and there is a falling of the tem- 
perature of the milk, there will be a thin cream on the 
surface. This will form a soft cream curd, which will 



86 HINTS on DAIRYING. 

adhere to the sides of the vat, to the rake, and to the 
hands, and be quite annoying. The amount is trifling, 
but the annoyance of the thing is enough of itself to 
make it desirable to keep the cream down; and a sum- 
mer temperature of the room is useful for this purpose, 
aside from the comfort and the better handling of the 
curd, from first to last. 

KEEP THE TEMPERATURE EVEN. 

After the milk begins to thicken, a cloth should be 
thrown over the vat to keep the surface warm. A con- 
venient way is to tack a cloth to slats a little longer than 
the vat is wide, putting the slats a foot or eighteen inches 
apart. This is easily rolled up and set aide, when not 
wanted, and is easily unrolled over the vat when needed. 
There should be no raising of the temperature after 
the rennet is added and the mass comes to a standstill. If 
there is, the portion next to the sides and in the bottom 
of the vat will get the most heat, and there the rennet 
will work the fastest and the curd will become tough be 
fore it is firm enough on the surface. Therefore, let the 
heat be stationary after the rennet is added and until the 
curd is cut fine, and keep the heat as even as possible all 
this time. 

CUTTING. 

The coagulum should be cut as soon as it will break 
clean across the finger when placed in it and lifted gent- 
ly upward. This early cutting is essential. There is 
seldom, if ever, any waste from cutting a curd too soon. 
The clearest whey will always be obtained by cutting 



CHEESE MAKING. K 7 

early; The whey exudes from the curd much more 
freely when it is }^et young and tender — and the only ob- 
ject in cutting the curd at all is to get out the whey. 
When cutting is begun, let. it be continued as expeditious- 
ly as possible until it is finished. Do not stop and let 
the curd stand and toughen-. It cuts more easily, with 
less friction and less waste by loosening fine particles of 
curd, when it is tender and parts easily before the knife. 
The more it toughens, the harder it cuts, the more fric- 
tion there is, the more the curd is torn and bruised, and 
the more the waste. If we could cut early and cut in- 
stantaneously, it would be all the better. 

CUT FINE. 

Cut the curd very' fine. Seldom, if ever, is a curd cut 
too fine. As the object is to get rid of the whey, the 
finer it is cut, the more easily we achieve our object. It 
is not as far from the center of a small piece of curd for 
the whey to run out as it is from the center of a large 
piece. By cutting fine, we expose more surface for the 
whey to run out of, and we have smaller pieces to heat 
up. Curd is a bad conductor of heat. If the pieces are 
large, it takes a long time for the heat to slowly pene- 
trate them when we want to increase it. The small 
pieces, therefore, absorb the heat more evenly, and this 
gives an evener action of the rennet. 

"COOKING." 

After the cutting is done, if the whey is separating 
rapidly, the heat may be started at once. If the action 



88 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

dfthe rennet is rather slow, it is better to wait a tew 
minutes for the curd to harden a little, while with 
your hand you carefully rub down the side of the vat, 
thus removing all the curd that may be adhering to it. 
Not over rive minutes waiting, as a usual thing, is neces- 
sary, and generally there need be no waiting. But as 
soon as the heat is started, begin to gently stir the curd 
with a rake, by passing it down into the middle of the 
vat and gently raising the curd on each side. If uncut 
pieces appear, carefully separate them with the teeth 
of the rake. Keep up this stirring, which may be more 
violent after the curd hardens, until the whole is heated 
up to 98 or 100 degrees — or to blood heat. The reason 
for constant agitation is to keep an even temperature 
throughout the mass and prevent the curd from packing. 
This secures even action of the rennet, The reason for 
going to blood heat is because rennet is most active at 
this point. It is the temperature indicated by Nature. 
It is the one at which we digest our food, and the one at 
which the calf's stomach forms curd and afterwards di- 
gests it. The pepsin or gastric juice is more potent at 
blood heat, and this pepsin or rennet is what does the 
work. The heat does not cook the curd in the vat any 
more than it cooks the milk in the cow's udder. We 
choose 98 degrees as the proper temperature because the 
digestive or cheesing process of the rennet goes on faster 
at this point. To go above or below it is to lose instead 
of gain. . This temperature should therefore be main- 
tained until the curd is w 'cookel" — that is, until the ac- 
tion of the rennet has expelled the proper amount of 



CHEESE MAKING. 89 

whey and the curd is as firm as we want it. Anent the 
stirring of curds, use the hands as little as possible. 
There is nothing better for this purpose than the com- 
mon hay rake with the handle shortened and one tooth 
cut off from each end by severing the rake-head within 
three quarters of an inch of the nexttootlr 

DRAWING THE WHEY. 

We next draw the whey down to the curd — leaving 
enough to stir it in easily, and cool the whole mass down 
to 90 degrees, to avoid too much packing, and draw off 
the balance of the whey. The whey should be run off 
before the acid develops, because acid, formed from the 
milk in the sugar, dissolves the minerals and cuts some 
of the oils in the curd, and these run off in the whey. 
Many curds, by remaining in the whey too long, become 
whey-soaked, and make cheese that is soggy and hard, 
with a sour flavor. This kind of firmness is not desira- 
ble, notwithstanding it is called for by buyers, who sel- 
dom know anything about cheese making. If the acid 
develops before the whey is properly expelled, or the 
curd fs "cooked," it carries off the minerals, which are 
in the form of phosphates, and this makes the cheese 
poor indeed. These phosphates are of lime, iron, mag- 
nesium, etc., but the principal is phosphate of lime. The 
affinity of these minerals for lactic acid is stronger than 
for phosphoric acid; so they let go of the latter and unite 
with the lactic acid, forming lactates and leaving the 
phosphoric acid free. But if we get all of the whey out 
of the curd that we desire, and then get the curd out of 

12 



i)0 HINTS OX DAIRYING. 

the whey thai is, draw off the whey— before the acid 
comes on, we retain the phosphates and fats in the cheese 
all the goodness that belongs in it. The acid will come 
on afterward, but we have reduced the sugar to a mini- 
mum, and the amount of acid developed does no serious 
injury. As the whey is already expelled, of course it 
cannot wash out the minerals that are dissolved. These 
remain, and in the process of curing recombine with the 
phosphoric acid. We have left in the curd about 3% 
parts of the 87 parts in 100 parts of milk. The whey left 
in the curd contains, we will say, l-10tli of the sugar that 
was in the milk. The acid formed from this, though too 
small to do any known injury, is large enough to do all 
the good required, if it does any good at all. We are, 
therefore, safe when we get the whey out of the curd and 
the curd out of the whey before the development of the 
lactic acid. 

SALTING. 

When the whey is well out of the curd, so as not to 
waste the salt, the salt may be applied and stirred in. 
The salt does not stop the development of acid, as is pop- 
ularly supposed. When applied, it aids in keeping the 
curd loose. Then the curd may stand, with occasional 
stirring, almost any length of time for the purpose of 
airing and cooling, of getting rid of any bad odors, of 
developing flavor by oxydation from contact with the at- 
mosphere, and of letting the acid come on. It is safest 
not to put the curd to press until it has a positively clean 
soui- smell. This shows that certain chemical changes 



CHEESE MAKING. 91 

have taken place, freeing the curd of the gases genera- 
ted by this process, and prevents any huffing of the 
cheese on the shelf in the curing room. Where ched- 
daring and grinding are practiced, the salt is of course 
applied after the curd is ground. Cheddaring is the 
easier and safer method, as the whey can be drawn 
early, and there is no danger from the acid. Salting at 
the rate of 2% lbs. of salt to 1,000 lbs. of milk is the usual 
practice and not far from right. For long keeping, 3 
lbs. of salt are not too much. Use none but the best 
dairy salt — the best of all the dairy salts, as well as the 
cheapest, being the Onondaga, F. F. 

PUTTING TO PRESS. 

After the acid fermentation is properly progressed, 
the curd should be put to press at a temperature not 
much below 80 degrees, nor much, above 85. If higher, 
it is liable to heat and taint the cheese at the center ; if 
lower it is difficult to face the cheese and press the curd 
together properly. But in warm weather, there is not 
much danger of getting the curd too cool. 



A.CID IJST CHEESE MAKIKG. 



pi HIS has been written on so much that the subject 
' has become hackneyed. The acid seems to have 
eaten into the souls of some and turned them sour; 
but notwithstanding, the so-called tk sweet curd " idea has 
made stead} x progress. Much of the opposition has come 
from buyers for export, who do not appear to be 
able to distinguish between a firm cheese and -a hard 
cheese, and who ignore quality if they get a cheese 
hard enough to ship, without danger of breaking, by the 
time it is ten days old. This has been demonstrated by 
the fact that cheese condemned when green as too 
soft has been pronounced by the same buyers fine and 
all right, even endorsed with enthusiasm, when it was 
two or three months old, which is about as young as a 
first-class cheese should be shipped. 

ANALYSIS OF MILK. 

Of course, there would be no acid in milk if there 
were no sugar in it. The proportion of sugar is shown 
by the following analysis of an average sample of good 
milk made by Dr. Voelcker, the late chemist of the Roy- 
al Agricultural Society of Great Britain: 



ACID IN CHEESE MAKING. 98 

Water 87.30 

Butter ""■ 3.75 

Caseine 3.31 

Milk-sngar and extractive matter 4.86 

Mineral matter (ash) 0.78 . 

Total 100.00 

It will be seen by this that the per cent, of sugar is at 
least 4.50, if we deduct the extractive matter, the propor- 
tion of which is not given. Numerous German analy- 
ses show it to range from 3.50 to 5.75 per cent. Hen- 
ry and Chevalier put the average at 4.77, and Prof. L. B. 
Arnold says milk from cows in perfect health should 
contain, during the month of August, 4.30 to 5.50 per cent. 
We will call it 4.50 per cent. There is 87.30 per cent of 
water. 

WHAT THE CHEESE MAKER DOES. 

In separating the solids from the liquids, by the action 
of rennet, at the proper temperature, we expel, say 83.30 
parts of the water, leaving 4 parts. We get rid of, say 
4.20 parts of the sugar, which is held in perfect solution 
in the water. We lose, say .50 of one part of butter, .31 
of one part of the caseine or albuminoids, and .13 of one 
part of ash. This leaves- 
Water 4.00 

Butter 3.25 

Caseine ..3.00 

Sugar 30 

Ash 65 

Total.... 11.20 

We thus have 11.20 per cent, of the 100 parts out of 
which to get our cured cheese. A fair average is 10 lbs. 
of cheese for 100 pounds of milk. Some of the water 



>4 hints OK DAIRYING; 



evaporates in curing, say 1 part, leading 8 parts. Our 

10. CO parts of cheese is then composed of the following: 

Water 3.00 

Butter 3.25 

(aseine 3.00 

Sugar, or what results from decomposition .. .30 
Ash 65 

Total 10.20 

This is a little in excess of the general yield. The 
waste is usually in the greater amount of ash, sometimes 
nearly the whole of it, when the acid develops before the 
whey is expelled. In that case, the lactic acid dissolves 
the phosphates and they run out with the whey. This is 
so much loss of ingredients absolutely essential to di- 
gestion and assimilation. 

WHAT OUGHT TO BE. 

So far from this, there ought to be less loss of ingre- 
dients than we have supposed in our illustrative figures. 
But more of the butter is cut and runs off with the whey 
when the acid is developed before drawing the whey. 
The aim of the " sweet curd " system is to avoid this waste 
as much as possible, especially that of the butter and ash. 
To effect this, the whey is drawn sweet and the acid al- 
lowed to develop after the curd is cooked and the whey 
expelled. There need be no more w T a{er left in the curd, 
but more butter and ash, both of wmich tend to make the 
cheese softer. But with proper curing rooms, there is 
no trouble in making the cheese firm enough for all prac- 
tical purposes, including shipping. It is better to use 
less rennet and not have coagulation begin under 25 min- 
utes, cutting the curd about 15 or 20 minutes later, and 



ACTD IN CHEESE MAKING. 95 

to take more time for curing, at a lower temperature. 
We then have a firmer, more buttery, and better flavored 
cheese, which is a desideratum. But, with high and 
changing temperature in the curing room, no certain or 
satisfactory results can be counted on. 

THEORY AND PRACTICE. 

In theory, we ought to prevent the waste of butter 
and caseous matter altogether; but in practice, there is 
always a little loss of butter, and there are certain albu- 
minous ingredients, called by the Germans ziega, which 
rennet will not coagulate. There is, of course, no means 
of saving this. The sugar we cannot and do not want to 
save in the cheese. If retained, it would be injurious 
and probably spoil the cheese, as the lactic acid in the 
small amount of sugar retained in the water is all that 
we can well manage. But all matter coagulable by ren- 
net, all the butter, and all the ash, we ought to retain; 
and we cannot really call ourselves scientific cheese ma- 
kers until we can do this. When accomplished, a great- 
er weight of cheese will be the result. 

There is no avoiding the acid resulting from the small 
amount of sugar retained in the curd; but, having ex- 
pelled sufficient whey, if we keep the curd warm enough, 
and hold it in the vat or the sink long enough, the lactic 
acid will come on and we shall get rid of the bad results 
of putting a curd to press sweet. This acidity is abso- 
lutely necessary with the generality of curing rooms. 
But with low and steady temperature in the curing room, 
Ave can do about as we please. 



RENNET. 



£ 



UR recent observations more than ever convince us 
of the importance of good rennet in cheese mak- 
ing. Great evils and losses result from the use of 
bad rennet; and the great trouble is that many cheese 
makers do not know when rennet is bad. There is not 
only the evil of diseased and tainted rennets, to begin 
with, but the preparation from good rennets is often 
spoiled in the preparing. Frequently, in hot weather, 
they are allowed to taint while soaking; and when the 
liquid is prepared sweet, it is often allowed to ferment 
and taint for want of sufficient salt and from exposure in 
a high temperature. 

SOAKING IN WHEY. 

Soaking in whe} 7 , containing all its taints and impuri" 
ties, is the source of a vast amount of foul rennet and off- 
flavored cheese. If whey is used, it should be boiled to 
kill taints and precipitate, as far as possible, the solids 
remaining in it. But, do the best that can be done with 
it, and still whey is objectionable for son king rennets, 
because of the acid that develops in it from the presence 
of sugar. This acid neutralizes a corresponding amount 
of rennet and helps to impoverish the cheese. Indeed, 



RENNET. 91 

if carried far enough before the curd is removed from it, 
the finer flavoring oils are cut by it, the phosphates are 
di'ssolvejd, and these pass out with the whey, leaving the 
cheese but little letter than an indigestible mass. If the 
acid adds solidity to the cheese, it does it by removing 
from it valuable ingredients. 

TAINTED MEXXET. 

Frequently, we have encountered rennet preparations 
that were not only very sour, but also tainted and having 
a strong smell of carrion. Nothing but huffy, porous, 
stinking and rotten cheese can result from the use of 
such rennet preparation. Yet it is used, and the result 
is attributed to bad milk, or to the presence of some in- 
scrutable taint or ferment, so prone are mankind to at- 
tribute effects to wrong causes. It has been to us unac- 
countable that cheese makers should use such horrid 
broth as we have seen them use, if they have any sense of 
smell whatever, and utterly astonishing that they should 
expect good cheese to be made from using it. With 
good milk, the cheese may appear fairly good for several 
days — especially if put to curing at a low temperature. 
But sooner or later, the taint must make its appearance. 
Possibly, it may not show ten days from the hoops, but 
the cheese can never become a mellow mass without also 
becoming a stinking one. It will soon be ripe and soon 
rotten. 

CURING RENNETS. 

It is usually understood that rennets are calves' 
stomachs salted and dried, or otherwise prepared; but it 

13 



98 HINTS ON DAIKYING. 

is Dot so certain that all the rennets in market are of this 
kind. The stomachs of the young of all milk-eating ani 
mals may be used for curding milk. We are not so sure 
but that among kk Bavarian " rennets we get the stomachs 
of the young of every animal known under the sun. 
They are of all sizes and all degrees of strength, but are 
generally liked by those who use them. They are cured 
by tying the two ends, and blowing the rennets up, like 
bladders. A better way, we think, is to rub them well 
with pure dairy salt, stretch them on a hoop or crotchecl 
stick, and hang them in a cool dry place. Some simply 
fill them with salt, tie them, and hang them up to dry. 
A great objection to this is, that the salt is likely to draw 
moisture from the atmosphere, and in wet weather the 
rennets are liable to drip and thus lose strength. Salting 
rennets down in a barrel, as we do meat, is considered 
objectionable— for what reason, we know not. The wri- 
ter had excellent a luck," one season, with rennets pre- 
served in this way. In whatever way preserved, rennets 
should, by all means, be kept cool. Heat is found to be 
very injurious, while cold — even freezing and thawing — 
appears advantageous. Possibly because the freezing 
and thawing loosen the fiber and set the rennet spores 
free. 

AGE AN ADVANTAGE. 

No rennets less than a year old should be used, if it 
can possibly be avoided. The old rennets, other things 
being equal, are stronger and make a firmer curd than 
new ones. Any one who has experimented with both will 



RENNET. 99 

always aim to have a supply of good old rennets on hand. 

SATING RENNETS. 

In saving rennets, great care should be taken to have 
them right. The fourth stomach of the calf is what is 
saved. Cut it from the adjoining stomach, at the point 
of junction, and do not leave a piece of intestine on the 
other end, but cut close to the opening of the rennet. 
Remove straws and dirt of all kinds carefull}', but be 
sure to not rub off the delicate lining of the stomach, 
which is the digestive or coagulative part and very much 
inclined to adhere to your hands, especially if they are 
dry. Do not try to rinse off anything more than the 
loose dirt, and that without rubbing, for }~ou cannot rub 
without waste. What is better, avoid having dirt or any 
thing else in the stomach to remove. This you can do 
by letting the calf go sixteen or eighteen hours without 
eating, and placed where it can get hold of nothing to 
swallow before killing. Say, feed it at night and slay it 
the next day about noon. The stomach will then be 
empty and clean and well stored with pepsin for the di- 
gestion of the next meal. This secretion is just what 
you want. The .rennet is . best when the calf -is six or 
eight days old. But, in any case, digestion should be 
well established before killing. If the calf should go too 
long without food — as is often the case with veal calves 
— the stomach will get inflamed. This is objectionable 

SELECTING RENNETS. 

In selecting rennets to soak, all discolored and bad 
smelling ones should be scrupulously rejected. But 



1 DO HINTS OX DAIRYING. 

rubbing rennets is a disagreeable ana " disgusting busi- 
ness, and ii is somewhat difficult to keep your rennet of 
uniform strength. Therefore, if good rennel extract can 
b3 bought at a reasonable price, we would recommend 
its use. It ought to be made better and cheaper in a 
wholesale way than in little batches at each factory. To 
guard against imposition, one should buy only of known 
reputable dealers. Preparing your own rennet is much 
like doing your own shoe making. It doesn't pay, if you 
have got anything else remunerative to do. 

WHOLESALE PREPARATION. 

If one must prepare his own rennet, the better way is 
to do it in a lump before the cheese-making season be- 
gins. Get a strong barrel and a pounder — such as used 
by washer women ; also a wringer. Take old rennets and 
cut them into strips. Make a weak brine of pure water, 
by using one pound of salt to twenty pounds of water, 
and in this, soak, pound and wring your rennets. Hang 
them up and freeze them; then soak, pound and wring 
them again; and so on as long as you can get any 
strength. When done, carefully settle, skim and strain 
your liquid. Put it in a clean barrel or stone jars, put in 
all the salt that it will dissolve, so that a. little will settle 
on the bottom, then stop or cover tight; put in a cool 
place and take from it as wanted for use. There is noth- 
ing better than saturated brine for keeping animal pro- 
ducts. Be sure, however, that you use only the purest 
dairy salt in preparing brine. Some say that only stone 
jars should be used for keeping rennet. We have used 



RENHET. 101 

an ash tub for the amount prepared week]}'. To keep the 
wood from tainting, we invariably, every time we dipped 
out rennet and exposed new surface, rubbed it with salt. 

EXCLUDING AIR. 

Rennet could be much more easily kept sweet if put 
in an air-tight vessel. The "American Dispensatory M 
says: •• "When gastric juice is completely protected from 
the air it may be kept unchanged for a long time ; but on 
exposure it speedily undergoes decomposition, acquires 
a very offensive odor, and loses its characteristic diges- 
tive property." AVe think that the Dispensatoiy is 
right. The composition of pure gastric juice is as fol- 
lows : AVater, 97.00; salts, 1.75; pepsin, 1.25; total, 100.00. 
There is also a small amount of free acid. Both rennet 
extract and pepsin are used as medicine. 



C^I'KIXG BOOMS. 



T|T is hard to determine which is of the greater iuipor- 
M> lance, good rennet or properly constructed curing* 
rooms; for both are necessary to the production of 
the best cheese, while the want of either is sure to injure 
if not to spoil it. The importance of control ing the teim 
perature in curing has not yet taken hold of the popular 
mind. The best milk in the world may be spoiled by bad 
rennet, and the best curd in the world may be spoiled by 
a bad curing-room. 

TEMPERATURE. 

In a large majority of the curing-rooms of the country, 
the temperature ranges from 60 degrees Fahrenheit to 90 
decrees and even above. Sometimes these extremes are 
realized within a few days. Think of setting a curd to 
fermenting at 80 to 90 degrees, when it ought to start at 
(30 to 65 degrees! Yet, this is frequently done; and to 
prevent the cheese from huffing and crawling it is pro- 
posed by some to make the curd so dry and sour in the 
beginning that heat will not soften it. In this way, is 
made what some buyers style a "firm'' cheese. The best 
English Cheddars, according to the American Encyclope- 



RENNET. 103 

dia, are set to curing at a temperature of 60 decrees, and 
are never allowed to go above 70 degrees. Our observa- 
tion and experience are that the range of temperature 
should never go above 75 degrees. Curing should begin 
as low as 65 degrees, and no cheese should be marketed 
under thirty days from the hoops. When the curing is 
slow, as it ought to be, the cheese will not be ripe in less 
than that time. If sixty days old before ready for mar- 
ket, the better. The hurrying process is everywhere bad 
for the product, and no amount of souring helps the mat- 
ter, however hard it may make the cheese and however 
well it may stand up in hot weather. We want some- 
thing else besides standing-up quality. With a low 
and even temperature for curing, we do not need to 
work all the o-oodness out of the curd to make a firm 
cheese. We do not have to cut the fats and phosphates 
out with acid, nor to dry all the moisture out by fine cut- 
ting and high scalding or long scalding. We can stop 
the cooking when the curd is evenly cooked through so 
as to be springy when pressed together by the hands, 
take it out of the whey before the acid develops, and put 
it to press without unnecessary delay. 

AN EXAMPLE. 

In the fall of 1884, we ate some cheese at Mr. N. L. 
Brown's, Gurnee, 111., which was dipped sweeter and 
put to press softer than we ever thought of doing ; yet 
the cheese was dose-grained and fine-flavored, and one 
that would pass muster as a first-class cheese anywhere. 
But it was not cured in a hot curing room, nor in one 
where the temperature went up and down the same as 



104 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

it did on the outside of the building. It was placed in 
his cellar, at a temperature of C4 degrees, and there re- 
mained until it was tit to cut. Nor was it even rubbed. 
but occasionally turned over. When cut, it looked like a 
cheese that had been kept in a box a year, covered with 
mold and mites. The superfluous moisture was dried 
out but the butter was all left, It demonstrated what can 
be clone by temperature. Had this cheese been cured in 
an ordinary curing-room, it would have gone all out of 
shape in a few days — as soon as rapid fermentation set 
in — and been off flavor b} T the time it was ten days old. 
Several other cheeses were cured in the same cellar, in 
the same way, but none of them were put to press so soft 
or sweet, but all sweet-curd cheeses, and all buttery and 
fine. This particular one was the result of hurry, as 
other matters than the curd demanded attention. But 
the thought came that it would be a good experiment, as 
it was, and the result was satisfactory, though not differ- 
ent from what was expected. Cheeses made in the same 
way as the others that were cured in the cellar, and some 
cooked more and soured more, were made by the same 
gentleman and cured in an ordinary curing-room. In 
hot weather, they swelled and some of them got out of 
shape, while the flavor was sharp and rough. But those 
in the cellar, at 64 degrees, apparently never moved a 
hair's breadth out of shape, were as solid as old butter, 
yet firm enough for shipping even, and of the finest fla- 
vor. It is hardly necessary to say that the cellar was 
exceedingly clean and sweet, and was well ventilated. 
These cheeses were a demonstration, if not a revelation. 



CURING ROOMS. 105 

MOISTURE IN CURING. 

It should be remarked, by the way, that a curing- 
room does not want to be a dry room. We do not want 
to dry* cheese; we want to cure it; that is, let it 2:0 
through the proper chemical change. This it does best 
in a somewhat moist room, in which the surface does not 
dry and become hard and impervious, so that the gases 
cannot escape. It is better to contend with a little mold 
than a dry atmosphere. 

BETTER CHEESE CAN BE MADE. 

We see, on turning to Prof. Arnold's "American Dai- 
rying, 1 ' that he says : "The temperature of a curing-room 
for whole milk should be 65 to 70 degrees ; for part skims, 
75 to 80 degrees." It is thus seen that fat plays an im- 
portant part in curing. u The more fat," he says, "the 
cooler may be the room; and the less fat, the warmer 
may it be." Again: "Under the present state of things, 
a cheese that will stand a voyage of 4,000 miles can hard- 
ly be called a fancy cheese. * * * But a much fan- 
cier cheese than we are now producing, one that will 
stand shipping, can be made. To do this will require 
milk to be free from some of the imperfections which are 
now quite common; it must betransported to the facto- 
ries in much better ventilated cans; it must be made with 
less rennet and less acidity ; and it must be cured in an even 
and lower temperature." We mark the conclusion in ital- 
ics, because we believe these are vital points. We insist 
that we cannot clo ourselves credit nor realize the best 
financial results in cheese making until we build better 

14 



106 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

curing rooms — rooms in which we can control the tem- 
perature without Fail. We have not yet settled clown to 
cheese making. We are still trying experiments and re- 
sorting to temporary expedients, We must build far 
more deliberately and for permanency. It is not neces- 
sary that we should point out just how a building may 
be erected so as to give control of the inside temperature. 
Architects know how to do it. When our cheese makers 
get to the point where they demand such buildings, they 
will get them without much trouble and at moderate ex- 
pense. It is only necessary that they should have the 
kt will. 11 The " way " will speedily open. 



WHEY. 



Z^T'viv ^ n °tice that, in some localities, the patrons of the 
ItItJ cheese factory are very much interested in the 
^"*^^ question of the value of whey for feeding purpo- 
ses—some going so far as to assert that what is left of milk 
in cheese making is as valuable as what is removed ! This 
is a startling assertion, and, if true, would convict our 
dairymen of a vast amount of stupid waste. Is it true V 
Let us try to get at the facts of the case by a direct, com- 
mon-sense investigation of it. 

COMPOSITION OF MILK. 

We will begin with the composition of milk. From 
hundreds of German analyses, ranging from 81.30 to 91.50 
parts of water, we take a fair average analysis, which we 
think will do justice to the mixed milk of our best cheese 
factories: 

Water 87.18 \ Sugar 4.21 



Caseine 4.21 

Albumen 55 

Fat 3.24 



Ash 

Total 



WHAT IS TAKEN OUT BY CHEESE MAKING. 

Now, in making cheese, what follows? We ought to 
secure all the caseine, but we do not quite. There is a 



108 HINTS ON DAIRYING. 

small waste. We loose all, or nearly all, of the albumen. 
We leave in the whey most of the sugar, if we do not 
convert it into acid "before getting rid of the whey, in 
which case we may have an injurious amount of the acid 
in the curd, besides dissolving and washing out nearly 
all the ash, which is composed of phosphates, principally 
of iron, magnesia and lime. These are changed into lac- 
tates, leaving the phosphoric acid free — not a very good 
food for anything but rats. We ought to save nearly or 
quite all the ash— the phosphates. But by the ordinary 
process of cheese making, these are nearly all lost, as is 
shown by the analyses of whey, which probably accounts 
for the low estimate in the popular mind of the value of 
cheese as food, it being rated at one-half the value that 
it would have were the phosphates all retained. But, 
four-fifths of the nitrogenous and muscle-making mate- 
rial has been removed, and also nine-tenths of the fat, 
which is heat producing and some say furnishes motor 
power. We have retained in the cheese 5.84 of the 12.82 
parts of solids, leaving 5.98 parts, 4.21 parts of which are 
sugar and not wanted in the cheese, or, at most, only a 
fraction of it. We leave less than one part of the albu- 
minous and caseous matter, which is the most valuable, 
and only one-third of one part of fat. So there is less 
than one part of solids left besides sugar, and the rest of 
the whey is water. 

COMPOSITION OF WHEY. 

What is whey, then, but sweetened water, using sugar 
of a very low sweetening quality, with a fraction of albu- 



WHEY. 109 

mi nous matter and ash in it? Again, by the so-called 
u sweet "process, which retains all, or nearly all, the 
phosphates in the cheese, the whey is made still poorer 
by analysis. Only the sugar and a fraction of the albu- 
minous matter, not coagulated by rennet, is left in the 
whey; and the amount of sugar in milk varies consider- 
ably, ranging, in a large number of German analyses, 
from 3.0 to 5.48 per cent, of sugar. But let us more 
closely examine the composition of whey. An average 
of eighteen analyses made by Voelcker is as follows: 

Water 93.02 1 Sugar i 4qq 

Nitrogenous matter. . . .96 | Lactic acid S ' 

Fat 33 j 

Ash .70 | Total 100.00 

POOH STUFF. 

Thus it is very plainly to. be seen that whey is poor 
stun to feed, even in its best estate. It has some value 
to mix with other foods, if used sweet; but when the su- 
gar has all turned to acid, and the phosphates have be- 
come lactates, leaving the phosphoric acid free, the 
whey is abominable, andean be used only in small quan- 
tities and with great care. It ought not to be fed to 
young animals with tender stomachs, and does older ani- 
mals no good. 

CRUELTY TO ANIMALS. 

All this corresponds with general observation and 
experience. The most intelligent dairymen with whom 
we are acquainted do not consider sour whey worth 
drawing home. It is cruel to feed sweet whey to any 
animal exclusively. Even a hog, which has made lis 
srrowth — and no animal can more fully extract the nutri- 



110 



HINTS OX DAIKYTNG 



lieal th while actually growing fat on sweet whey. The 
portion of less than one per cent, of albuminous matter 
prolongs, rather than sustains life. That is to say, the 
hog will not starve to death quite so quick if fed 
whey as it' will without it. The sugar accumulates in 
the system as fat, while the hog is slowly perishing of 
inanition. But if it is thus cruel to feed it alone to full 
grown animals, it is doubly so to feed it to young and 
growing animals — as pigs and calves — the necessities of 
the lives of which demand tissue-making material as well 
as life-sustaining. If whey is used, let it be fed sweet, 
and always with some kind of dry nitrogenous food, as 
bean meal, oil meal, pea meal, clover, etc. But, with the 
acid system of cheese-making, it is impossible to do this. 
The whey is decomposed before run into the whey-vat. 



.■m THE END !&: 



COXTENTS. 



PREFACE 3- 4 

HISTORICAL— In Asia; Among the Jews; In Southern En- 
rope; In America; Figures from the Census; Growth in 
Thirty Years; Product per Cow and per Capita; Home 
Consumption vs. Exports; Forms of Milk Consumption; 
The Private Dairy vs. the Factory 5—12 

CONDITIONS— Pastures; Water: Winter Food: The Sta- 
ble; Shelter; The Dairy House; Cleanliness; The Herd. 13— 17 

DAIRY STOCK— Points of a Milker; Dutch-Friesian ; The 
Jersey ; The Guernsey ; The Ayrshire ; The Shorthorn ; 
The Devon; The American Holderness; Inbreeding; 
Swiss ; Polled ; Hereford ; Common Stock 18— 34 

BREEDING DAIRY STOCK-Selection; Coupling; Care.. 3.5— 39 

FEEDING STOCK— Carbonaceous and Nitrogenous Foods ; 
What is Carbon? What is Nitrogen? Compounding Ra- 
tions; Per day and per 1,000 lbs. Live Weight; Sample 
Rations; Fattening Rations: Working Rations: Diges- 
tibility of Foods; Elements of Foods; Ensilage; Re- 
marks 40— 52 

HANDLING MILK— Keep Quiet; Regularity; Keep Down 
the Foul Odors; Keep Out the Dirt; Let Out the Cows; 
A Lick of Meal; Care of Milk; Composition of Milk; 
Deterioration of Milk in the Udder; Do Fats Expand 
Before Congealing? Effects of Falling Temperature; 
Cooling and Airing: Protection from the Hot Sun; Treat- 
ment of Night's and Morning's Milk; Receiving; Test- 
ing ; Bad Milk ; Weighing ; Keeping Milk 53— 66 

BUTTER MAKING— Deep Setting and Water Cooling; 
Effect of Too Low Cooling; Buttermilk Flavor; Shallow 
Setting and Air Cooling; Oxydizing Cream; Skimming 
Milk; When to Skim; Churning; Temperatures; What 
Makes the Butter Come ; When to Stop Churning ; Work- 
ing; Salting; Salt as a Preservative; Packing Butter; 
Preparing the Package: Closing the Package f Storing: 
Style of Package 67— 80 



CHEESE MAKING— Duty of Patrons; Unreasonable Ex- 
pectation; Guarantees; Heating; Coloring; Setting; 
Other Details; Keep the Temperature Even; Cutting; 
Cur Fine; "Cooking;" Drawing the Whey; Salting; 
Putting to Press.... 81—91 

ACID IN CHEESE MAKING- Analysis of Milk; What the 
Cheese Maker Does; What Ought to Be; Theory and 

Practice 92- 9."5 

LIEN NET— Soaking in Whey; Tainted Rennet; Curing Ren- 
nets; Age an Advantage; Saving Rennets; Selecting 

Rennets; Wholesale Preparation; Excluding Air 96—101 

( URING ROOMS— Temperature; An Example; Moisture 

in Curing; Better Cheese Can Be Made 102—106 



W HEY— Composition of Milk; Composition of Whey 
Stuff: Cruelty to Animals 



Poor 



107- tie 



J Moutwy. .-.o cents ,>ev .ear. 
Enlarged One-haH.^ 

J ' vui-.ushkks. 

SYRACUSE,^ 



Apparatus & Supplies 

FOR 

Cheese Factories, Creameries 
and Dairies. 



WHOLESALE 

A LIST OF ARTICLES NECESSARY FOR 
MAKING CHEESE FROM 20 TO 800 COWS 
SENT ON APPLICATION. 

CHILDS & JONES, 
Utica. N. Y. 




THE UNADELLA VALLEY 



STOCK BREEDERS' ASSOCIATION 

import only the finest registered Stock found in Friesland 
and North Holland, in conformity with the requirements 
of the Dutch-Friesian Breeders 1 Association of America. 
The renowned prize Bull, 

nvcoorE 26, 

at head of herd. Their herd has been widely exhibited 
and awarded more prizes than any herd, in this country. 
An examination of the herd will convince the most 
skeptical of its great superiority. Catalogues on appli- 
cation. 

WEST EDMESTON, N. F 



CHEESE AND BUTTER MAKERS' SUPPLIES 

and Complete Manufacturing Outfits. 

Pat. Ganjs Cheese Tresses. Self Bandaging Cheese Hoops, Cheese 
Vats, Patent twin Creamery Vats, Curd Sinks, Curd Mills, Curd 
Knives, Chums. Butter Workers, Rennet and Annatto Jars, Fair- 
barks Scales. Cheese Screws and Hoops. 



PHILADELPHIA 

Banish -Weston Cream Separator. 

It saves time; gives ten to fifteen per cent, more butter and of 
better quality; no ice required ; leaves skim milk fresh and puri- 
fied; saves room in creamery; pays for itself in a short time; cost 
of maintenance very small as machine is very durable. 

Small Separator, portable, capacity 650 lbs. per hour. 
Medium Separator, capacity 900 to 1,000 lbs. per hour. 
Large Separator, capacity 1,600 to 1,800 lbs. per hour. 
Extra Separator, capacity 2,'iOO to 2,500 lbs. per hour. 
Send for Special Circular. 



Bradley Butter Boxes, Butter Pails and Butter Trays. 

CHEESE BOX MATEKIAL, TACKS AM) NAILS. 

Wire's Patent, Self Cutting, Self Agitating, Self Salting 
CIRCULAR CHEESE VAT. 

Three Sizes: -5,000, 8,CC0, 12,0C0 pounds of milk respectively. 



ANSEN'3 DANISH LIQUID Forty-Six Highest 

Prizes . y Go ld Medals 

BUTTER GOLORS^^cfflSSJas 



est butter made in Km ope. 

Fast superseding all other Coloring in America. Does not color 
the Buttermilk. Butter beautiful. Greatly enhances value. No 
Alkali. Dozen bottles and Directions free to Druggists. HANSEN'S 
EXTRACT of RENNET and STANDARD CHEESE COLOR. No 
manufacturer or repacker can afford to neglect Danish preparations. 

BURRELL & WHITMAN, LITTLE FALLS. N. Y. 



i. fjii» & m:s 

Improved 





Will Not Color the Buttermilk. J-*- , 

-Kj: It is the Strongest Color Made. J-*- 7 

-*-! It will not Change to Rancidity. 

It is the ONLY Oil Butter Color manufactured that 

#t WILL » iV7>7 T e .FZ4 FOft • 7J UTTER if 

BEWARE OF IMITATIONS. 

USB ONLY THE MOST RELIABLE. 

Took the Highest Award at New Orleans and 
Wherever Exhibited. 

M^E have been engaged in the manufacture of butter color since 
V£Al/i870, and were the first to make an oil color in this country- 
Other manufacturers have followed our example, and are now 
endeavoring to reap where we have sown. Ours is the old reliable 
butter color and the only one that is safe to use. All others flavor 
the butter. 

Our Butter Color is for sale by druggists and grocers generally 
throughout the United States. If they do not have it. ask them to 
order it from their wholesale druggist or giocer. On receipt of 
price we will send our color to any point. Send for prices. 

IF 1 . B- ZFsfflg'© dz Co., 

LAKE MILLS, WIS. 



ONOI&DA6A F. F. SALT 

— X WARRANTED X 

as IP-ure as aiw Salt in the Market. 



Not Excelled for Butter or Cheese, for the Table, or 
for all Culinary Purposes. 



The following is the analysis made by Prof. Babcock, of the 
New York Experiment Station, in January, 1884: 

Water 0.593 

Insoluble Matter 0.019 

Sulphate of Lime .... • 0.760 

Sulphate of Magnesia 0.094 

Chloride of Sodium (Pure Salt) 98.501 

99.967 
It will be seen by the foregoing that the Onondaga F. F. Salt is 
very pure, containing only 1*4 per cent, of impurities and water 
The amount of pure salt is 98.501. This is not materially different 
from the analysis of Walz & Stillwell, made by the direction of the 
New York Butter and Cheese Exchange, in 1875— one analysis 
showing 98.5242. and the other 98.3864 parts of pure salt. Asliton 
contained, according to their analysis, 97.7598, and Higgin 97.6809 
parts of pure salt, the impurities equaling 2.20 per cent, in Asliton 
and 2.25 per cent in Higgin, while the impurities in Onondaga F. F. 
Salt are only 1.50 per cent. 

First premiums were taken at New Orleans, at the World's 
Fair, by both Butter and Cheese salted with Onondaga F. F. Salt. 
It wius everywhere that there is open and fair competition. Dairy 
goods salted with it took a majority of all the premiums (46 out of 
89) awarded at the Grand Union Fair in Milwaukee, December 2d 
to 9th, 1882, over four foreign eompetitors. It was awarded a medal 
at the Centennial by a committee of scientists and experts from all 
parts of the world, k< for purity and high degree of excellence." 

SOLE MAMJFACTlJliERS, 

HiMERICAjq i/lIRY lALT $0., 1. 

SYRACUSE, N. Y. 



Address 



The * (Srowell • f reaodsr. 

(Patent Applied f( r) 

W. H. BOND, Solo Mssrafecta cr. 



It is very easily a 1 
justed when .clean 
ing, no t o o 1 s .o r 
wrenches being re- 
quired, has no glass 
tubes to get broken, 
is smoothly, strong- 
ly and- mechanical- 
ly made and easy 
to handle or move, 
and is made in all 
sizes to suit small 
dairies. 




It consists of m 
heavy tin recepta- 
cle i'or milk, im- 
mersed in water, 
which is held in a 
double walled vat, 
and is so construct- 
ed that either a 
running stream or 
ice can be used for 
cooling and keeps 
I the milk at an even 
temperature. 



Lowest in Price. Smoothest Make, Most Durable Gtojk 

Very Easily Cieaned, Ko Possible Chance for 

Souring, and is a Complete Success. 

THE NEWEST I.N THE MARKET 

Price, size for 56 Quarts, $25. 

Dealers Srioixlcl Secure trie Sale ojf it at Once. 



SPECIALTIES: Tin Rooting, Eave Troughs and Conductors, 
Sinks, Piunps and Lead Pipe, all kinds of Tin, Copper and sheet 

Iron Work: Cream Pails, Milk Pails, Strainers, and other Dairy 
Goods Made to Order. 

■w. n. :Bo:i>Tr>, 

127 So. Salinaand 3 E. Onondaga Sts., Syracnse, N. Y. 



E 



^-c\5 



Cornish, ®urtis 




^ 



<$> 



a* 




reene. 









We make from tLe best materia] 

STXIFIE^XOR ARTICLES 

that are models of strength and simplicity. 
Unquestioned Proof Given of their Durability 

SOLE MANUFACTURERS OF THE 

Curtis' Improved Factory Churn, Mason's Power 

Butte' Worke: , Lever Worker, Curtis' Square 

Box Churn, Rectangular Churn, Cream 

Vats, Dog Power, etc., etc. 

"ONE FAMILY CHURN AT WHOLESALE WHERE WE 
HAVE NO AGENT." 

All goods warranted exactly as represented. 
TWO GOLD and FOURTEEN SILVER MEDALS AWARDED for SUPERIORITY 

CORNISH. CURTIS & GREENE. 



Ft. Atkinson, Wis. 



JENK'S AUTOMATIC CHEESE MAKER 

The Latest and Greatest Improvement in 

Cheese Making Appliances for 

Factory Use. 

WILL PAY FOR ITSELF IN ONE SEASON. 



Sweepstakes Surd Cutter 

and Other Great Improvements in Cheese 
and Butter Apparatus. 






^w*£v 




■3GS»S 




The Cheapest, Handiest and Best Bandage Made, and 
a full line of 

Cheese f actory and Dairy Supplies. 

Send for our Illustrated Circular. 

CHARLES MILLAR & SON. 

XJT1CA., 1ST. Y. 



■*#?. * *E$L 



^«^1 : 



Mil 




